Introduction
This annotated bibliography represents a broad-based and balanced compendium of scientific research articles that address harvest practices and their impacts on forests, fish, wildlife, soils and water resources. Sources of the literature search included, but were not limited to, The University of Missouri Library, OVID, Internet web sites, The School of Natural Resources (SNR) faculty, The United States Forest Service North Central Research Station in Columbia, MO, SNR theses and dissertations, personal communications with professionals in the natural resources field, communication with various state, federal, and university personnel in those states where chip mills are located.

Rather than an annotation which is usually shorter in length, we have opted to present a full abstract for each article. An abstract is more useful because it outlines the scope of the work and the major findings of the research.

This bibliography contains scientific information that we deemed reputable and relevant to Missouri's forest habitat types. It is by no means a complete bibliography. Rather, it should be viewed as a work in progress. As study reports and articles on chip mills become available they can and should be entered into the database. In the interests of time, and due to manpower constraints, we limited our search to those states listed in the project agreement under "Scope of Work". There were some articles that we requested through a particular referral source but did not receive them. Newspaper articles and unsubstantiated commentary that were not peer reviewed by professionals in the field of natural resources were not included. In some cases research was not included if a complete citation was not given. One can oftentimes complement their literature search by checking the literature cited at the end of the research article for more articles dealing with the specific topic of interest.

Bibliography layout
At the beginning of the bibliography there is a table of contents. Within the table of contents, the basis for the organization of the research literature revolved around two points; one was the category of potential environmental impacts as listed in the Governor's Executive Order 98-16. The other was a natural division or categorization of literature that surfaced as we conducted our search. These subdivisions of information are listed in alphabetical order. Within each of the subdivisions will be found research articles and other scientifically reputable information along with the citation and annotation for each. In addition, there is a 3.25-inch, 2MB computer diskette located in a pocket located inside the front cover of the bibliographic report. This computer diskette contains a complete listing of the database. This database was completed using Corel's WordPerfect 8.0. Using edit functions within WordPerfect one can do a search for keywords. Along with the bibliography report we have included a copy of each research article, report, and bulletin. These articles are arranged in alphabetical order according to the name of the lead author.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs) 1

CHIP MILLS 3

CURRENT / ONGOING RESEARCH 6

EROSION 8

HISTORY AND ECOLOGY 12

INVENTORY and SURVEY 17

MARKETS / ECONOMICS 28

PUBLIC / SOCIAL ATTITUDES 33

RECREATION and TOURISM 41

SILVICULTURE and HARVEST PRACTICES 42

SOIL AND NUTRIENTS 62

STREAM SEDIMENTATION AND WATER QUALITY 71

WILDLIFE HABITAT 79

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI THESES 90
Forestry Department Theses 90
Fisheries and Wildlife Department Theses 101

Authors: W. Dustin Walter, Graduate Research Assistant and John P. Dwyer, Associate Professor, University of Missouri, Forestry Department, The School of Natural Resources, 203 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources, Building, Columbia, MO 65211.

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs)

Adams, T.O., and D.D. Hook. 1994. Compliance with silvicultural best management practices on harvested sites in South Carolina. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 18(4): 163-167.

ABSTRACT: One-hundred-seventy-seven harvested sites in South Carolina were evaluated for compliance with Best Management Practices (BMPs). South Carolina Forestry Commission (SCFC) foresters evaluated the roads, road stream crossings, streamside management zones, harvest operations, and log decks. In addition, each site was evaluated for overall BMP compliance, which was based on the level of both off-site and on-site impacts. Overall BMP compliance was 84.7%. Compliance was highest for log decks (97.7%), roads (92.0%), and harvest operations (89.8%) and lowest for streamside management zones (72.4%) and road stream crossings (41.7%). Nineteen variables were analyzed to determine their influence on BMP compliance. Two variables were responsible for the 27sites with inadequate ratings: (1) the presence of perennial and intermittent streams, and (2) logging under wet soil conditions. Compliance did not differ significantly among landowner categories or physiographic regions. To improve BMP compliance, landowners should identify sensitive sites and take adequate steps to protect them during timber harvesting.

Keywords: Best Management Practices (BMPs), streamside, stream crossing, road, landowner, South Carolina, harvest operations

Henson, Mickey. 1995. Forest practice guidelines and Best Management Practices implementation and effectiveness survey on timber operations in North Carolina. North Carolina Division of Forest Resources Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources, Raleigh, North Carolina. August, 1995. 22p.

ABSTRACT: Assesses North Carolina's compliance with forestry BMPs, including compliance in the areas of roads, buffer strips, skid trails and water bars.
Based upon findings in this study, compliance with North Carolina's forestry BMPs and FPGs can be increased and improved in the following ways:
1. BMP workshops, such as the Prologger workshops given by the North Carolina Forestry Association (NCFA) and this division, should continue and possibly increase in frequency.
2. Education should focus on pre-harvest planning and how to avoid sensitive areas on harvest sites. Also, the use of correctly installed water bars and adequate SMZs should be strongly stressed expressed to loggers and timber buyers.
3. A statewide database should be created to better monitor the level of forestry BMP compliance.
Keywords: Best Management Practices (BMP), North Carolina, roads, buffer strips, trails.

Kochenderfer, J.N., P.J. Edwards, and F. Wood. 1997. Hydrologic impacts of logging an Appalachian watershed using West Virginia's Best Management Practices. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(4): 207-218.

ABSTRACT: A 39 ha gauged watershed located in north-central West Virginia near Parsons was cut to a 35.5cm stump diameter and logged using wheeled skidders to evaluate the effectiveness of West Virginia's Best Management Practices (BMPs). Roads initially occupied 10.6% of the watershed, but this percentage is decreasing as much of the original road prism reverts to forest. Reducing basal area by 44% in stems 2.54 cm dbh and larger had a negligible effect on maximum growing season stream temperatures, apparently because the stream remained shaded by residual trees and understory shrubs growing along it. Both growing season peakflows and total stormflow had small but significant increases due to treatment. Dormant season stormflow did not increase significantly. Although mean monthly exports of suspended sediment doubled the first year when the area was being logged, they remained within the range reported for carefully managed areas in the East. Sediment exports returned to pretreatment levels by the third post treatment year. Long-term projections of current exports rates indicate that sediment exports from harvesting operations (3 entries) during a 100 yr rotation will account for less than 5% of the total sediment exported from the study watershed. Nitrate exports increased significantly during most of the monitored post treatment years, but fertilizer applied to the roads during grass seeding is believed to have contributed to these increases. Actual concentration values remained low, with maximum concentrations well below standards for potable water. Calcium concentrations also increased during most years, but road liming during seeding probably was responsible for most of this increase. The BMPs used in this study were effective in minimizing adverse impacts to soil and water resources.

Keywords: Best Management Practices, BMPs, logging roads, stream, watershed.

CHIP MILLS

Gray, J., and J. Guldin. 1997. Hardwood chip export mills in Arkansas - implications for sustainability. Paper presented at the Symposium on Arkansas Forests - a conference on the results of the recent Forest Survey of Arkansas. May 30-31, North Little Rock, AR.

ABSTRACT: Two new hardwood chip export mills (HCEM's) recently began operating in west-central Arkansas, and a third is planned. Together, they will require 1.1 million tons of non-hickory hardwood roundwood annually, primarily from the nonindustrial private sector. Overall, total physical and operable growth surpluses could support the new sector, but purchasable surpluses are barely adequate now and may be less than adequate by 2005. The HCEM's will generate about 630 direct and indirect jobs and $16.75 million in yearly wages and stumpage payments. However, if all of the new demand is met by unsightly harvesting methods, tourism related job losses after 15 years could offset HCEM-generated employment. Because HCEM's will increase competition for hardwood, some small sawmills may go out of business, although the turnover of small sawmills was high even before HCEM's entered the market. The HCEM market for small hardwoods is less than ideal, but these mills can process "rough" and "rotten" trees. HCEM harvesting is generally not good forestry; to date, it has tended to take the best trees and leave the worst. This could improve if landowners were better informed and willing to reinvest following harvest. The effects of HCEM's on Arkansas hardwood forests as a whole are not expected to be great. Although protection of soils and water quality has been inconsistent, the new sector appears to be committed to provide such protection on lands they harvest. The authors present six recommendations designed to promote a positive effect of new sector operations on the sustainability of timber resources and other forest values.

Keywords: hardwood chip export mills, roundwood, sustainability, forest values, Arkansas, jobs, tourism.

Smith, D. 1997. Chipping forest and jobs: A report on the economic and environmental impacts of chip mills in the Southeast. The Dogwood Alliance, P.O. Box 4193, Chattanooga, Tennessee. 82p.

ABSTRACT: The recent proliferation of chip mills in the southeastern U.S. is causing unprecedented forest destruction, degrading not only water quality, wildlife threatened and endangered species and forest health, but also our local economies. Last year alone, an estimated 1.2 million acres were cleared to feed the 140 chip mills in the region. Chip mill operations perpetuate short cutting cycles, thereby reducing native forest ecosystems to fiber farms. Removals of softwoods throughout the South have already exceeded growth, and experts predict a shortage of hardwoods within the next two to ten years. In addition, experts predict that by the year 2020, 70% of the native pine forests in the South will have been converted to pine plantations to meet increases in industry demand for softwood fiber.
This report published by the Dogwood Alliance and the Native Forest Network documents the trends in forestry, with special focus on the pulp and paper industry. They present many impacts which chip mills potentially will have on the environment, communities, forestry and related jobs, as well as effects on private landowners. Also presented are their solutions to the chip mill problem.

Keywords: chip mills, economics, community, forest, South, fiber, softwoods, industry.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 1. Knoxville, TN. 408p.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 2, Appendices. Knoxville, TN. 409-910.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 3, Response to Public Comments. Knoxville, TN. 911-1270.

ABSTRACT: The environmental consequences of denying, approving, or approving with mitigation measures one or more chip mill barge terminals between river miles 412 and 424 of the Tennessee River are analyzed. The impact analysis includes both localized (on-site) and procurement area(off-site) impacts. Localized impacts are those that are directly or indirectly associated with construction and operation of a barge terminal, use of TVA land for access to the barge terminal, and use of adjacent private land for a chip mill. Procurement area impacts are associated with timber harvest. After weighing the potential benefits of the pending requests with the likelihood of substantial, cumulative localized impacts and the risk of significant harvesting-related impacts, TVA's preferred alternative is denial of all proposed actions.

Keywords: environmental consequences, chip mill, barge terminals, Tennessee, procurement, timber harvest.

Willamette Industries: Chip mill 101. http://www.wii.com/CHIPMILL.HTM

ABSTRACT: Willamette's point of view on and some questions answered about chip mills.

Keywords: chip mill, Willamette.

CURRENT / ONGOING RESEARCH

Cubbage, F.W., and D.D. Richter. 1998. Cooperative Research Proposal: Economic and ecologic impacts associated with wood chip production in North Carolina. The Southern Center For Sustainable Forests. (Unpublished; Study in progress).

OBJECTIVES: The research project will be developed as an integrated study of economic and ecologic impacts of wood chip production in North Carolina. The economic component will examine direct financial impacts and broad economic issues of wood chip production. It will employ large scale economic and timber supply models to examine:
(1) the impacts of wood chip production on timber supply;
(2) the effect of wood chip production on wood-based manufacturing firms;
(3) the effects of improved timber markets for forest landowners;
(4) the market and nonmarket impacts on economically efficient forest management practices and on forest conditions; and
(5) the impacts of wood chip production on local economies, infrastructure, and communities.
The ecologic component will evaluate the effects of expanded wood chip production on individual forest stands and regional landscapes by using literature reviews, field surveys, and models to examine:
(1) how wood chip production alters ecology of forest management practices in North Carolina;
(2) direct, indirect, and cumulative effects of wood chip production on forest structure, plant and animal communities, soil erosion and fertility, and water quality;
(3) the impacts of wood chip mills on stormwater and waste water runoff from processing facilities; and
(4) evaluating forest management options for assuring sustainability of North Carolina's forest resources as harvest pressures continue to mount, and as forest values continue to increase.

Keywords: economic, ecologic, timber supply, soil, water, stormwater, forest, North Carolina.

Tennessee Forest Management Advisory Panel. 1998. Final Report. Report to: Governor , Commissioner of Agriculture, Tennessee Forestry Commission, and Tennessee General Assembly. 66p.

ABSTRACT: The Panel was established by Senate Joint Resolution No. 230. The charge was to evaluate and recommend appropriate policy and operational programs that promote forest sustainability and sound stewardship on Tennessee forest lands. Such recommendations were to include guidelines for the management of state forest lands, and programs and services to all forest landowners. For all recommendations proposed, the Panel sought and utilized scientific and authoritative data to reach its conclusions. Suggestions are also made for funding these recommendations. Great strides were made by the Panel in balancing widely divergent resource needs by using widely diverse interest groups to develop consensus recommendations. The Panel identified an array of important issues, many being too complex to resolve in a short period of study. The recommendations of the Panel, if implemented, can be the forerunner of an ongoing process leading to the achievement of forest sustainability in Tennessee.

Keywords: sustainability, Tennessee forest lands.

EROSION

Beasley, R.S., A.B. Granillo, and V. Zillmer. 1986. Sediment losses from forest management: mechanical vs. chemical site preparation after clearcutting. Journal of Environmental Quality. 15(4): 413-416.

ABSTRACT: The comparative effects of mechanical and chemical site preparation on water yields and sediment losses following forest clearcutting were evaluated over a 4-yr period in the Athens Plateau area of southwestern Arkansas. After 1 yr of pretreatment measurements, three forested watersheds were clearcut and the residual vegetation and debris were sheared and windrowed but not burned. Three watersheds were clearcut in a similar manner, but received chemical site preparations. Residual trees on two watersheds were injected with 2-4,D amine; the third watershed was serially sprayed with a mixture of Tordon* (active ingredient; picloram [4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicoline acid]) and GarlonR (active ingredient; triclopyr [3,5,6-trichloro- 2-pyridinyloxy-acetic acid]). Three additional watersheds were left undisturbed for controls. Mean annual sediment losses on the mechanically, site prepared watersheds during the first post treatment year were significantly higher than those from either the chemically site prepared watersheds or controls. Chemical site preparation did not significantly increase sediment losses. Although 2nd yr losses for the mechanical site preparation and control treatments doubled over 1st-yr levels, so significant treatment effect was detected for either site preparation treatment. Third-year losses decreased below 1st-yr losses for all treatments but not to pretreatment year levels. The relatively sharp declines in sediment losses during the third post treatment year were attributed to rapid regrowth of natural vegetation on the sites.

Keywords: Nonpoint source pollution, erosion, water-sheds, forest hydrology.
Grace, J.M., B. Rummer, B.J. Stokes, and J. Wilhoit. 1998. Evaluation of erosion control techniques on forest roads. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 41(2): 383-391.

ABSTRACT: The cutslope and fillslope on a newly constructed forest road on the Talladega National Forest near Heflin, Alabama were treated with three erosion control techniques: wood excelsior erosion mat, native grass species, and exotic grass species. Bare soil plots were used as the experimental controls. Total sediment yield was measured during the period 21, September 1995 to 18, March 1996. A randomized complete block design was used to evaluate treatment methods on the basis of sediment yield and runoff volume. No significant difference in sediment yield was found from the fillslope among the treatments. However, on the cutslope significant differences were detected among all treatments. The erosion mat treatment was most effective in mitigating erosion losses with a 98% reduction in cutslope sediment yield and 88% reduction in fillslope sediment yield.

Keywords: Forest roads, soil erosion, conservation practices, slopes, economics.

Kochenderfer, J.N. 1970. Erosion control on logging roads in the Appalachians. Res. Pap. NE-158. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 28 p.

ABSTRACT: In the steep terrain of the Appalachian Mountains much damage to forest streams is caused by erosion on logging roads. Muddy water that is unsuitable for fish, swimming, or human consumption often can be traced to these eroding roads. This paper has been prepared to sum up what land managers know about preventing and controlling erosion on logging roads in the Appalachians.
This paper covers the process of design, construction of and maintenance of logging roads, and ends with the proper care of that road following the logging operation.

Keywords: logging roads, erosion, maintenance, seeding, construction.

Miller, E.L., R.S. Beasley, and E.R. Lawson. 1988. Forest harvest and site preparation effects on erosion and sedimentation in the Ouachita Mountains. Journal of Environmental Quality. 17(2): 219-225.

ABSTRACT: Soil erosion and sedimentation effects of three silvicultural treatments-- clearcutting, selection cutting and no disturbance (control) were compared in a replicated small watershed study conducted in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas on shallow soils derived from sandstones and shales. Clearcutting significantly increased annual sediment yields over selection and control treatments in 1981, the first year, after treatment but not in 1982 or 1983. Clearcut to control sediment yield ratios were 20:1, 6:1, and 2.6:1 in 1981, 1982, and 1983, respectively. First-year sediment losses from clearcuts averaged 237 kg ha-1. Stream channels were stable, but they still may have been the primary source of the sediment losses. Erosion following harvest and site preparation did not exceed estimates of long term soil formation rates. Long-term soil losses were projected to average 70 kg ha-l yr-1 over a 35-yr rotation period with clearcutting while control rates were projected to average 50 kg ha-' yr-1. A comparison of soil losses measured in this study with baseline rates and estimated soil loss tolerances suggests site productivity need not be threatened by silviculturally induced soil erosion. Suspended solids levels of storm flow were less than 100, 50, and 20 mg L-1 at least 99, 98, and 97 % of the time, respectively, across

treatments. Only at the 10 mg L-1 level was there a significant total suspended solids time differential in watershed stormflow between clearcut or selection cut and control treatments.

Keywords: Total suspended solids, Turbidity, Clear-cutting, Selection cutting, Ouachita.

Patric, J.H. 1976. Soil erosion in the Eastern forest. Journal of Forestry.
47(10): 671-677.

ABSTRACT: This paper provides an overview of what is known about forest soil erosion in eastern United States. By most accounts, erosion form undisturbed as well as carefully managed forest land is 0.05 to 0.10 ton/acre/year; that is less than the geologic norm (0.18 to 0.30) and far less than maximum tolerable rates for agricultural land (1 to 5 tons/acre/year). Eroded material is about equal parts of particulate and dissolved matter. Responsibly managed timber harvest causes only minor increases in forest soil erosion, usually from channels and logging roads, but irresponsible timber harvest can increase erosion of particulate matter to unacceptable levels.

Keywords: forest soil erosion, logging roads, agricultural land, geologic norm.

Patric, J.H. 1977. Soil erosion and its control in eastern woodlands. Northern Logger and Timber Processor. 25(11): 4-5, 22-23.

ABSTRACT: One of the few ideas that most people can agree upon is that woodland is our surest protection against accelerated soil erosion. People have concurred in this belief since history began but our concept of how forests protect the soil is evolving even now. A considerable part of this evolution is spanned by my career with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Three conclusions are reached:
(1) Because overland flow rarely occurs in the eastern hardwood forest, there is no mechanism to transport particulate matter across the forest floor. Eroded material, consisting equally of particulate matter and dissolved solids, originates primarily in stream channels. This material averages about 0.05 to 0.10 ton per acre per year.
(2) Tree cutting does not cause overland flow so it has only a negligible and temporary effect on soil erosion rates and on stream pollution.
(3) Logging, especially in streams, can cause erosion rates to increase greatly, but logging roads more frequently are sites of accelerated erosion.

Keywords: overland flow, eastern woodland, soil erosion, logging, streams, roads.

Patric, J.H. 1978. Harvesting effects on soil and water in the Eastern Hardwood forest. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 2(3): 66-73.

ABSTRACT: For the eastern United States, there is overwhelming evidence that neither the productivity of forest soil nor the quality of forest water are substantially lessened during or after responsibly managed harvest of wood products. Carelessness, however, damages both resources. The key is forest roads; they cause little adverse effect on soil or water given proper location, drainage, traffic control, and maintenance. The public must better understand that it bears much of the cost for these measures.

Keywords: forest roads, location, drainage, soil, water, eastern hardwood forest.

Settergren, C.D., R.M. Nugent and D.M. Smith. 1980. Factors controlling surface flow and sediment yield following clearcutting in the oak-hickory of the Missouri Ozarks. In: Proc. 3rd Cent. Hardwoods For. Conf. University of Missouri.
66-76.

ABSTRACT: Disturbance of the vegetation, protective litter layer and soil on a forested watershed during logging can lead to localized overland flow and erosion. A paired watershed study was initiated to the determine the effects of clearcutting on runoff and sediment yield in the oak-hickory type of the Missouri Ozarks. A network of 20 runoff plots was established in the logged and undisturbed portions of both watersheds to identify the source areas for surface flow and erosion. Plots were located so as to sample a range of physiographic positions. Total storm runoff and sediment yield have been inventoried for all precipitation events since March, 1979 for each plot and related through multiple regression analysis to a number of site factors. Precipitation variables included total storm volume; average storms, maximum 5 minute and maximum 30 minute intensities; and canopy throughfall. Other variables inventoried included surface soil cover, antecedent surface soil moisture and plot location with respect to slope percent, aspect and position. While data have been extremely variable between storms and between plots, runoff for the clearcut areas has averaged ten time greater than that for the undisturbed plots. Moreover, sediment yield has been as much as 100 times greater for the disturbed plots in the clearcut area. Additional research will be required to more clearly define cause-effect relationships. Although the influence of a number of storm and site related factors on the surface runoff and sediment yield processes can be easily observed in the field, and have often been empirically verified, this study has demonstrated that, under certain circumstances, the relationships between storm/site factors and runoff and sediment yield are far from straightforward.

Keywords: runoff, sediment yield, precipitation, forest disturbance, clearcutting.
HISTORY AND ECOLOGY

Beilmann, A.P., and L.G. Brenner. 1951. The recent intrusion of forests in the Ozarks. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 38: 261-282.

ABSTRACT: Scanlan (1950), in writing of American forests, says: "The lumber barons began to despoil and they did an excellent job." This statement might correctly be applied to a specific region but a lumber baron could not operate in a prairie region. Seemingly, it cannot be applied at all to the eastern and northern portions of the Ozarks. Within historic times this vast region was a prairie, or at least park-like in that the trees were widely spaced and confined to the water-courses and drainage-ways. The logging operations which are now so much a part of the industry of the Ozark region are but little more than a century old. The loggers have been, and still are, cutting the first crop of trees to mature there. In some sections any tree large enough to yield a 2 x 4 is cut; and the region will be scoured again and again for more trees of that size. However, there is evidence to show that insufficient time has elapsed to develop a mature second growth of either pine or hardwoods.
This paper gives an excellent recounting of the ecological history; including fire, human settlement, soils, and vegetation and forest coverage in the Ozarks.

Keywords: ecology, history, forest, Ozark region, vegetation, flora, fire.

Cunningham R.J., and C. Hauser. 1989. The decline of the Missouri Ozark forest between 1880 and 1920. In: Waldrop, Thomas A., ed. Proceedings of pine-hardwood mixtures: A symposium on management and ecology of the type; 1989 April 18-19; Atlanta, GA: Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-58. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 34-37.

ABSTRACT: Missouri's presettlement pine and oak-pine forest once extended over six million acres. Today the pine and oak-pine cover types occur on less than 400,000 acres. Between 1880 and 1920, some of the Nation's largest producing sawmills were operating in Missouri's Eastern Ozarks region. A historic review of this period's industrial and social activities toward the Ozark forests illustrates how an area once dominated by pine was converted to hardwoods.

Keywords: History, pine, oak, Missouri Ozarks, pine-hardwood.

Hansen, T.A., T.A. Spies, F.J. Swanson, and J.L. Ohmann. 1991. Conserving biodiversity in managed forests. BioScience 41(6): 382-392.

ABSTRACT: Consensus is emerging among ecologists that biological diversity will not be conserved effectively in natural reserves alone(Wilcove 1989). The existing reserve network is too small, major expansion is unlikely, and barriers to migration make species in reserves especially vulnerable to global climate change(Westman 1990). Therefore, Harris(1984) recommends that the reserves be complemented with a matrix of "seminatural" lands where ecological principles are used to manage both for commodity production and conservation of species diversity. The challenge now is to design and effectively manage such multipurpose landscapes (Franklin et al. 1986, Hunter 1990).
Studies of unmanaged forests teach us that natural disturbance maintains structural complexity within stands and that this complexity promotes plant and animal diversity. Attention to structural complexity is a core concept of the "new forestry" now being advocated in the coastal Northwest (Franklin 1989, Gillis 1990). Another lesson from natural forests is that old growth is only one of the common natural seral stages, and each stage provides important and/or critical habitats to some plants and animals. Finally, comparisons between natural and managed forests teach us that native species diversity is influenced by the size, distribution, edge characteristics, and dispersion of stands across landscapes. They suggest that these lessons are not unique to the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Biodiversity, natural disturbance, structure, ecology, landscape.

Homes, T.P., and R.A. Kramer. 1995. Economic values, ethics, and ecosystem health. Southeastern Center for Forest Economics Research, Research Triangle Park, NC. SCFER Working Paper No. 80, 25 p.

ABSTRACT: Economic valuations of changes in ecosystem health can provide quantitative information for social decisions. However, willingness to pay for ecosystem health may be motivated by an environmental ethic regarding the right thing to do. Counter preferential choices based on an environmental ethic are inconsistent with the normative basis of welfare economics. In this paper, we examine some of the characteristics of willingness to pay values elicited using the contingent valuation method. Sequential contingent willingness to pay values for different levels of protection of high-elevation spruce-fir forests in the southern Appalachian Mountains were elicited from a random sample of households along with socioeconomic and other information. An empirical analysis indicated that willingness to pay distributions and average willingness to pay did not vary with the level of protection. We discuss various factors that may explain our results including lexicographic preferences, low marginal values, lack of instrument sensitivity, or misrepresentation of the ecosystem services valued by the public. We conclude that further theoretical development of the relation between ethical motivations and economic value is warranted.

Keywords: economic, values, ethics, ecosystem health, pay, Appalachian Mountains.

Johnson. Paul S. 1992. Perspectives an the ecology, and silviculture of oak-dominated forests in the Central and Eastern States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-153. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 28 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes the historical and ecological relations between oaks, fire, and humans and reports the consequent silvicultural options and limitations in managing and sustaining oak dominated forests.

Keywords: Quercus, oak, fire, regeneration methods, savannas, old growth.

Johnson, T.G., D.P. Stratton. 1998. Historical trends of timber product output in the South. Resour. Bull. SRS-33. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Sta6on. 56 p.

ABSTRACT: Historical data of periodic canvasses of primary wood-using plants are presented for the 13 Southern States. They are Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Cubic foot and standard volume tables are presented for production only. Production is the sum of timber harvested and used within a State, plus all roundwood exported to other U.S. States.

Keywords: Production, pulpwood, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs.

Messina, M.G., S.H. Schoenholtz, M.W. Lowe, Z. Wang, D.K. Gunter, and A.J. Londo. 1997. Initial responses of woody vegetation, water quality, and soils to harvesting intensity in a Texas bottomland hardwood ecosystem. Forest Ecology and Management. 90(2,3): 201-215.

ABSTRACT: Sustainable management of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems requires a knowledge of responses to management impacts, including timber harvesting. The effects of clearcutting and partial cutting on woody vegetation regeneration dynamics, surface and groundwater quality, soil physical properties, and soil respiration were tested in a bottomland hardwood ecosystem in southeastern Texas, USA, through comparison with non-cut control areas. Overstory removal only slightly affected composition of woody vegetation regeneration 1 year after harvesting compared with pre-harvest composition. Initial composition in both cutting treatments appeared to be the strongest determinant of post-harvest composition, at least for the first year after harvesting. There were few significant differences in groundwater properties when harvesting treatments were compared with control areas during a 17-month period following harvest. Turbidity, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved O2, NH4-N, and PO4-P of stream water did not vary significantly among treatments. Slight decreases in total and macro porosity were observed in association with higher bulk densities at 0-5 cm depth in the clearcut and partial cut treatments. Saturated hydraulic conductivity values did not decline significantly with treatment intensity. No significant differences among treatments in measured soil physical properties were observed at 5- 10 cm depth. Although in situ soil respiration increased with harvest intensity, treatment had no significant effect on mineral soil respiration. In summary, most variables showed only slight response to harvesting, thereby indicating that harvesting practices can be conducted with minimal initial impacts on measured response variables.

Keywords: Wetlands; Species diversity; Soil respiration; Clearcutting; Regeneration.

Sedjo, R.A. 1992. Preserving biodiversity as a resource. Resources. Winter 1992: 26-29.

ABSTRACT: Wild plants and animals can provide natural chemicals and compounds for producing drugs and other products, information and ideas for developing synthetic chemicals and compounds, and genes for engineering plants and animals with desirable sets of traits. Despite their value, wild species are threatened by destruction of natural habitats. Because there are no property rights to wild species or the genetic resources embodied in them, habitat protection tends to be undervalued, particularly in developing countries. However, contractual arrangements that allow these countries to trade the right to collection of their wild genetic resources in return for compensation could foster habitat protection in the absence of such property rights.

Keywords: biodiversity, property rights, habitat.

Starkey, Dale A. 1993. Crown health of overstory hardwoods. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 172-181.

ABSTRACT: Monitoring the health of reserve hardwood trees is being performed as part of the Ecosystem Management Research Project for shortleaf pine-oak forest types on the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas. Results will provide information about the success of retaining such trees and to provide guidelines for selecting reserve trees in future operational harvests. Reserve trees are mostly 10 to 12 inch d.b.h. codominant and intermediate oaks. A suite of crown measurements (diameter, live crown ratio, density, dieback, and foliage transparency) is being used to detect significant changes in reserve tree health over time. Average ratings for these indicators before harvest appear to be within normal ranges for each species. Immediately after harvest, 16 to 62 percent of reserve trees had logging injury to the base, crown, or both. Injury frequency generally increased with the intensity of harvest cutting. Most injury was judged slight or moderate in severity.

Keywords: injury, harvest intensity, health, crown, oak, shortleaf pine.

Yarnell, S.L. 1998. The Southern Appalachians: a history of the landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-18. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 45 p.

ABSTRACT: Natural and geological processes have changed the Southern Appalachian landscape repeatedly over millions of years. About 12,000 years ago, humans arrived and became important agents of change. The extent and degree of human influence increased along with the population. Today, pressure remains intense on the Southern Appalachian landscape and management issues bring contention as different groups seek to use the region's resources in different ways.

Keywords: Agriculture, environmental history, lumber industry, mining, prehistory, Southern Appalachian, tourism.
INVENTORY and SURVEY

Abt, R.C., F.W. Cubbage, G. Pacheco. 1995. The timber supply situation in the Southeast: Implications for intensive management. In: Proceedings, 23rd Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. June 20-22, 1995. Asheville, NC. 1-6.

ABSTRACT: For as long as we have been collecting inventory information, the southern timber inventory has been increasing. In the last decade, however, softwood removals in the South have exceeded growth. If current trends continue, hardwood removals will exceed growth in about a decade. If availability and operability constraints are considered, the supply situation looks even more serious. These structural changes in the supply situation, coupled with increasing demand on the resource have led to dramatic price increases. This paper analyzes past trends and assesses the future supply and price situation for the South. The potential effect of intensive management on both regional supply and wood cost will also be examined.

Keywords: timber supply, markets, prices, inventory.

American Forest and Paper Association. Forest and Paper Industry state economic impact statements. http://www.afandpa.org/Congressional/eis/index.html.

ABSTRACT: America's forest and paper industry ranges from state-of-the-art paper mills to small family-owned saw mills and some 9 million individual woodlot owners. As a whole, the industry ranks among the top 10 manufacturing employers in 46 states, employs some 1.6 million people, and produces wood and paper products valued at more than $230 billion each year. America's forest products industry is also among the most competitive in the world, with annual exports totaling over $23 billion. Included in this file are the overview reports of the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, North and South Carolina, and Tennessee. For each state figures based on the contribution of forest products to the employment, income, value, capital expenditures, number of mills and related businesses, production, and timberland ownership are presented.

Keywords: forest and paper industry, family owned saw mills, South, forest products.

Beltz, R.C. 1991. Forest survey results for higher grade hardwood sawtimber. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. In: Proceedings of 19th annual hardwood symposium of the Hardwood Research Council: facing uncertain futures and changing rules in the 1990's; 1991 March 10-12; Starkville, MS. Memphis, TN; Hardwood Research Council: 135-145.

ABSTRACT: The 1987 Forest Survey of Mississippi shows a slight increase in forest area and a substantial gain in hardwood inventory. Hardwood gains, appearing in all diameter classes, suggest an increase in quality but hardwood users generally believe quality is declining. By our analysis, volume of top quality hardwood declined while volume in other grades increased. Forest Survey grading is conservative when compared with grades assigned by a hardwood specialist. User constraints applied to the survey data base severely limit the amount of "available" quality hardwood. Forest Survey data are available so users can conduct their own analyses.

KEYWORDS: forest survey, Mississippi, hardwood, grade.

Constance, D.H. and J.S. Rikoon. 1997. Missouri citizens' attitudes towards forest resources: Comparative and present perspectives. Executive Summary Presented to: The Forestry Division, Missouri Department of Conservation. Department of Rural Sociology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources. University of Missouri - Columbia. 46p.

ABSTRACT: The Forestry Division of the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC) contracted with the Department of Rural Sociology in the College of Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources at the University of Missouri-Columbia to conduct and analyze a survey of Missouri residents regarding a number of forest land use and conservation knowledge issues. This project is a replication of a 1993 study called the "Benchmark Survey" done by MDC. As in 1993, the survey instrument dealt with a number of forest use and management issues as well as several questions related to Missouri citizens' environmental views. The survey gave respondents the opportunity to state their opinions and perceptions on such issues as the seriousness of a variety of environmental problems, the value of forests in general and government-owned forests in particular, their general knowledge of Missouri forests, and the responsibility and duties of the Forestry Division of MDC. The 1996 survey contains some slight modifications of the 1993 instrument which are noted in the final report.
A summary of respondents perceptions of Missouri forest and forestry practices.

Keywords: MDC, Missouri forest, survey, environmental views.

Dubois, M.R., W.F. Watson, and B.J. Stokes. 1992. Utilization of southern hardwood logs for chips by species and size. In: Proceedings of the 1992 Tappi Pulping Conference; 1992 November 1-5; Boston, MA. Atlanta, GA: Tappi Press. Book 1: 369-374.

ABSTRACT: Results of a woodyard study in northeast Mississippi examining the effects of log size add hardwood tree species on log utilization and chip quality are presented. Utilizations defined as weight of a debarked log divided by the weight of the undebarked log expressed as a percent. Utilization averaged 85.2 percent for oaks, 79.2 percent for sweetgum, 85.0 percent for mixed species, and 75.1 percent for hickories. Differences in utilization within a species is attributed to log size and log breakage during debarking. In the chip quality analysis, the highest percentage of acceptable sized chips were associated with the 22.9 cm log diameter class rather than with the larger 27.9 cm diameter class for the oak and mixed species groups. For sweetgums, levels of acceptable sized chips were not significantly different between the three largest log diameter classes. Oversized chips were minimized with the 22.9 cm log diameter class for the oaks, sweetgums, and mixed species groups. Levels of fines and pin chip production varied among the log diameter classes according to species group. In hickories, the 27.9-cm log diameter produced the highest levels of acceptable sized chips and lowest levels of fines, pins, and oversized chips. Bark content for oak, sweetgum, and hickory species were all under 1 percent of the total chip sample. Bark content for the smaller diameter log, classes in the mixed species group was over 3.5 percent.

Keywords: oak, chip quality, debark, hickory, log diameter.

Feather, Dan. 1998. Increased clearcutting for woodchip production in Tennessee: Statistics, Effects, and Trends. The Center. LaFollette, TN. http://users.multipro.com/RRSOCM/ 6p.

ABSTRACT: In 1989, about 2.7 million tons of timber were cut in Tennessee to make woodchips for pulp and paper. Hardwoods comprised about 1.1 million tons of this total. This resulted in over harvesting in 17 counties statewide.
By 1996, the cutting of hardwoods for chips tripled to 3.3 million tons, due to increased demand from existing mills and from twelve new log export facilities. Total removals for woodchip production reached 5.2 million tons.
In 1997-after the date of the most recent data used within this report- three new high-capacity chip mills were located in Tennessee, or were sourcing logs from Tennessee, and are expected to keep forest consumption growing at a high rate. Over harvesting will increase.
Projecting a modest growth rate of only half that of recent years, about 6 million acres of trees (half of all Tennessee's forest land) will be needed by the year 2016. This level of clearcutting will doubtless have drastic effects on the hardwood industry. Long-term effects on the health and productivity of Tennessee's forests are unknown.

Keywords: Tennessee, clearcutting, wood chips, chip mills.

Hackett, R.L., S. Jones, and R.J. Piva. 1993. Missouri timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1991. Resour. Bull. NC-151. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 46p.

ABSTRACT: Discusses recent Missouri forest industry trends; production and receipts of saw logs; and production of charcoal, veneer logs, cooperage logs, and other products in 1991. Reports on logging residue, on wood and bark residue generated at primary wood-using mills, and on disposition of this residue.

Keywords: saw logs, charcoal, cooperage, veneer logs, roundwood, residue.

Hahn, J.T., and J.S. Spencer, Jr. 1991. Timber resource of Missouri, statistical report, 1989. Resourc. Bull. NC-119. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 123 p.

ABSTRACT: The fourth Missouri forest inventory found 14.0 million acres of forest land in 1989, of which 13.4 million acres (96 percent) is timberland. This bulletin presents highlights and statistics on area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Keywords: area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Howel, M., and R. Levins. 1998. Arkansas' timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1996. Resour. Bull. SRS-28. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 23 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1996, roundwood output from Arkansas' forests totaled 636 million cubic feet. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers was 286 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 315 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 242million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 74 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants was 147 in 1996. Total receipts were 661 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and J.L. Wells. 1997. Georgia's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-14. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 37 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Georgia's forests totaled 1.3 billion cubic feet, 7 percent more than in 1992. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers declined 10 percent to 474 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used, primarily for fuel and fiber products. Pulpwood was the leading roundwood product at 617 million cubic feet; saw logs ranked second at 552 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third with 79 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 250 in 1992 to 207 in1995. Total receipts increased 6 percent to almost 1.4 billion cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and L. Lowe. 1997. Kentucky's Timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-20. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 33 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Kentucky's forests totaled more than 186 million cubic feet, 35 percent more than in 1996. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 84 percent to 110 million cubic feet. More than 94 percent of the plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 161 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 20million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 435 in 1986 to 401 in 1995. Total receipts increased 43 percent to almost 212 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and D.R. Brown. 1997. North Carolina's timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-18. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 35 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from North Carolina's forests totaled 833 million cubic feet, 2 percent less than in 1994. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 1 percent to 301 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at398 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 332 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 66 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 322 in 1994 to 320 in 1995. Total receipts declined 4 percent to under 743 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, D.P. Stratton, and P.S. Bischoff. 1997. South Carolina's timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-16. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Station. 31 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from South Carolina's forests totaled 622 million cubic feet, 5 percent less than in 1994. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers declined 4 percent to 203 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Pulpwood was the leading roundwood product at320 million cubic feet; saw logs ranked second at 247 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 50 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 105 in 1994 to 99 in 1995. Total receipts declined 5 percent to about 619 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, J.A. Sciivani, and J.M. Foreman. 1997. Virginia's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-19. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 37 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Virginia's forests totaled more than 455 million cubic feet, 4 percent more than in 1992. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 3 percent to 167 million cubic feet. Almost 97 percent of the residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 213 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 201 million cubic feet; composite panels were third at 21 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 311 in 1992 to 289 in 1995. Total receipts increased 3percent to almost 485 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Leatherberry, E.C. 1993. Using forest Inventory data to assess use restrictions on private timberland in Illinois. Resour. Bull. NC- 149. St. Paul. MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.

ABSTRACT: Illustrates the kinds of information that can be generated from forest resource inventory data about access restrictions on private timberland.

Keywords: Private land, public access, use restrictions.

London, J.D. 1997. Forest Statistics for Arkansas Counties - 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS- 017. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 57p.

ABSTRACT: This report contains the statistical tables and figures derived from data obtained during the 1995 inventory of Arkansas. The multi-resource inventory included 75 counties and five survey regions (fig. 1). Data was collected during the period of June1994 through October 1996.

Keywords: Arkansas, inventory, forest, survey.

McKeever, T. and H. Spelter. 1998. Wood-Based panel plant locations and timber availability in selected U.S. States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. General Technical Report. FPL-GTR-103: 5 p.

ABSTRACT: This report lists wood-based panel industry plant locations, production capacities, timber inventories, and wood costs for 24 U.S. states. Industry sectors covered include medium-density fiberboard, particle board, softwood plywood, and oriented strandboard. Maps of major forest producing states show plant locations and the underlying density of timber stocking by county. The study relates physical measures of timber availability to market measures of timber scarcity and draws inferences about the potential of selected states to increase timber output at their present rate of forest productivity.

Keywords: Oriented strandboard, plywood, particle board, medium-density fiberboard, capacity.

Northeastern area forest health report. 1992. Northeastern Area, NA-TP-03-93. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 57 p.

ABSTRACT: The National Forest Health Monitoring Program is focusing on assessing the condition of our nation's forests in response to the interests and concerns of the American people. As a part of the program, this report was produced in an effort to present information about forest condition and forest stressors (insects, pathogens, weather, fire, and air quality) with respect to major forest types. This document provides an historical perspective on the influence of the various forest stressors and assesses recent impact, through 1991, on the forests within the 20 States that comprise the Northeastern Area of the USDA Forest Service. Through these annual reports, we hope to be able to
identify factors that may be affecting forest condition within this area.

Keywords: forest health, Northeastern, Missouri, forest type.

Pacheco, G., R.C. Abt, and F.W. Cubbage. 1996. South-wide timber supply projection and assessment. Paper presented at the 1996 Southern Forest Economics Workshop. Gatlinburg, Tennessee. March 27-29. 93-109 pp.

ABSTRACT: Results from a South-wide timber supply projection to the year 2020 are examined and compared against national projections. Using the latest FIA survey unit data for the South (excluding Kentucky and public ownerships) individual state inventories were updated to 1994 as a common starting point for the projection. Only private ownerships were considered in the model. Softwood prices are projected to increase seven times and hardwood prices over two and a half times over the projection period. The largest projected price increases for softwoods occur during the decade 2010 to2020. Inventory of softwoods is projected to decrease by 30 percent relative to the starting year, and hardwoods to increase only slightly by 2 percent South-wide softwoods growth to removal ratio is expected to decline from 0.94 to 0.71, and from 1.36 to 0.87 for hardwoods. Price projections are sensitive to growth per acre assumptions. The results in this paper are conservative in that they assume constant productivity levels in planted pine forest types.

Keywords: private ownership, timber supply, FIA survey, growth to removal, price.

Piva, R.J. 1994. Pulpwood production in the North-Central Region, 1993. Resour. Bull. NC-160. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central forest experiment Station. 39p.

ABSTRACT: Lake States pulpwood production increased to 9.4 million cords in 1993. Central States pulpwood production decreased by 19 percent - from 356 thousand cords in 1992 to 288 thousand cords in 1993. Plains States pulpwood production was 114 thousand cords. Pulpwood production is shown by county and species group for Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.

Keywords: pulpwood, Missouri, cords North Central.

Rosson, J.F., Jr. 1992. The woody biomass resource of major tree taxa for the Midsouth States. Resour. Bull. SO-166. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 52 p.

ABSTRACT: Fresh and dry biomass estimates of major trees in seven Midsouth States by forest type, ownership, species, stand basal area, tree class, diameter, and height are tabulated. Information is presented for total tree, hole, and crown components.

Keywords: Forest inventory, forest land, green weight, large-scale sample, regional inventory.

Spencer, J.S., Jr., S.M. Roussopoulos, and R.A. Massengale. 1992. Missouri's forest resource, 1989: an analysis. Resour. Bull. NC- 139. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 84 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1989 the fourth Missouri forest inventory found 14.0 million acres of forest land, of which 13.4 million acres (96 percent) is timberland. Growing-stock volume increased from 6.5 to 9.0 billion cubic feet between 1972 and 1989. Analysis and statistics on forest area, timber volume, growth, removals, mortality, and projections are presented.

Keywords: area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Stratton, D.P., M. Howell, and R. Romedy. 1998. Mississippi's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-29.Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 23 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Mississippi's forests totaled 1.0 billion cubic feet. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers was 357 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residue was used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 493 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 454 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 63 million cubic feet. There were 105 primary processing plants operating in Mississippi in 1995. Receipts totaled 878 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood residues, roundwood saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Vissage, J.S.,and K.L. Duncan. 1990. Forest Statistics for Tennessee Counties-1989. Resource Bull. SO-148. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 72 p.

ABSTRACT: Tabulates forest resource information from a new inventory of the counties of Tennessee.

Keywords: Area, volume, forest type, stand size, ownership.

Willits, S., R.J. Barbour, et. al. 1996. The Colville study: wood utilization for
ecosystem management-Preliminary results of study of product potential from small-diameter stands. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-559. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 11p.

ABSTRACT: The Colville Study was developed in 1994 to identify and evaluate a series of management options for achieving ecosystem objectives in dense stands of small-diameter trees while also producing wood products. The Colville National Forest selected the Rocky II Timber Sale as an example of this type of stand that needed management to achieve the following goals: (1) create late successional forest structure, (2) decrease forest health risk from fire, insects, and disease, (3) improve wildlife habitat by providing large green trees and snags, and (4) improve stand aesthetics by decreasing stand density.
The Colville Study was divided into four technical focus areas: Silviculture and Ecology, Forest Operations, Timber Conversion, and Economics. Results of each technical focus area indicate that (1) vegetative management activities are necessary to achieve the ecosystem goals, (2) there are alternative harvesting systems for removing the timber in an ecologically sound manner but costs need to be considered, (3) both species and material size are important in the recovery of wood products, and (4) financial analysis needs to incorporate all of these factors and many more to effectively evaluate the relative merchantability of different types of treatments.

Keywords: ecosystem, small-diameter, products, ecology, Silviculture.

MARKETS / ECONOMICS

Araman, P.A. 1987. Eastern United States hardwood sawtimber resources and export potential. In: Proceedings of SOFEW/MWFE Joint Annual Meeting. Asheville, N.C.

ABSTRACT: To look at the export potential of the Eastern hardwood sawtimber resources, including the Southern and Northern regions, hardwood resource data were compiled from USDA Forest Service state resource evaluation reports on a set of select export species. The species are the select oaks, yellow birch, hard maple, black walnut, black cherry, and the ashes. These species were chosen on the basis of their importance to the export market. Resource data are presented on standing hardwood sawtimber (inventory, growth, and removals) of the select export species, and on all hardwood sawtimber. Estimates of standing sawtimber for 1985 are presented along with projections for 1990,1995, and 2000 for the Eastern United States and the Northern and Southern regions.
The relative export potential of the hardwood resources by state was determined by the Preferred Available eXport species (PAX) ranking system. In this system, we first order the first 25 states by total quantity of select export species. Next, we evaluate these 25 states with an Export Index formula. The formula uses data on the quantity and quality of the standing sawtimber in the select export species. A premium is placed on select oak sawtimber because about two-thirds of the hardwood product exports are oak. A premium also is placed on grade 1 log sawtimber material because many of these logs are exportable; and if processed in the United States, they contain sizeable amounts of exportable high-grade lumber or veneer. The PAX rankings are presented for the top 25 states in eight groupings. Note that other factors could be considered that could change these results.

Keywords: Hardwood exports, sawtimber resources, select hardwood species, sawtimber quality

Busby, R.L., and R.A. Kluender. 1993. Management costs associated with various reproduction cutting methods. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 253-254.

ABSTRACT: Management-cost data were gathered for various reproduction cutting methods as part of the ecosystem management research in the Ouachita Mountains. Costs were gathered on both traditional and nontraditional reproduction cutting strategies in an attempt to determine the cost-effectiveness of each management strategy and to estimate the resource requirements for wide-scale implementation of each method. Preliminary results indicate that sale preparation costs are higher for low volume-per-acre cutting methods.

Keywords: management, cost, preparation.

Bush R.J., and P.A. Araman. 1991. A comparison of market needs to the species and quality composition of the eastern hardwood resource. Proceedings: Society of American Foresters National Convention. San Francisco, California.

ABSTRACT: Many markets for hardwood lumber have experienced growth in recent years. Eastern and Central hardwood lumber production reached an estimated 11.2 billion board feet in 1988, a twenty year high. Wood furniture, flooring, and exports have also experienced growth in the last ten years. During the same period, annual growth on eastern hardwood forests has exceeded annual removals. However, species and grade compositions do not match demand. These differences can affect timber harvest and the availability of raw material.

Keywords: Hardwood, exports, sawtimber quality, log grade, annual growth.

Idassi, J., J. Huarachi, P. Winistorfer, and B. English. 1998. Economic impacts of the forestry and forest products industries on the Tennessee economy. Tennessee Forest Products Center. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Report no. 5.
http://web.utk.edu/~tfpc/ 10p.

ABSTRACT: An impact analysis to examine the relative importance of the forestry related sectors to the overall Tennessee economy, utilizing the IMPLAN database and model, was conducted. The 1994 data used for this study were the most recent available. The Tennessee input-output economic model results indicated the Tennessee forest products industry directly employed 69,811 people and paid about $2.3 billion in wages in 1994. The industry generated directly an industry output of about $9.1 billion, and value-added totaled over $3.9 billion. When the forestry sector of the Tennessee economy produces products or services to meet demand, the overall State economy is affected in three ways: directly, indirectly and with induced effects. The total effect on the state economy is the sum of these three separate effects. Therefore, in 1994, relative to other Tennessee industries, the total effect of the forest products sector was 162,886 jobs, over $3.5 billion in wages and salaries, $15.5 billion of industrial output, and over $ 7.5 billion of value-added.

Keywords: value-added, Tennessee forest products industries, economy.

Kluender, R A., D.A. Lortz, and B.J. Stokes. 1993. Production time, total costs and residual damage at varying harvest intensities. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 229-240.

ABSTRACT: Six stands were harvested by either clearcut, shelterwood, or single-tree selection methods. Harvest productivity was evaluated in 2 consecutive years (1991 and 1992) for each harvesting method. The single-tree selection harvests consisted of thinnings in even-aged stands as an initial basal area reduction cut required to convert the stand to uneven-aged structure. Harvest intensity (percentage of basal area removed) ranged from 31 to 100.
The same contractor used two skidders (one grapple, one choker) and production chain saws to harvest all six tracts. Harvested sites were similar in slope, average diameter at breast height (d.b.h.)and preharvest number of stems by d.b.h.
In 1991, total felling time (including walk, acquire, fell, and limb-top times) was inversely related to harvesting intensity. In 1992, total felling time averaged highest under the single-tree selection method and lowest under the shelterwood method. When these averages were adjusted for differences in stand characteristics, the inverse relationship between total time and percentage of basal area removed at harvest (harvesting intensity) was present for both years.
In both years, total cycle time (including travel-empty, bunch-building, travel-loaded, and deck times) was higher, and volume per cycle was lower for the cable skidders than for the grapple skidders. After adjusting for differences between stands, total cycle time was inversely related to harvest intensity.
Factors affecting total felling time (in decreasing order of importance) were d.b.h. of harvested stems, distance between trees, and harvest intensity. Factors affecting total cycle time for skidding (in decreasing order of importance) were travel distance, skidders type, number of stems per cycle, harvest intensity, and volume per cycle.
The total percentage of stand area trafficked was lowest for the single-tree stands. The single-tree selection method (in 1992) had the largest and only significant increase in bulk density in the skid trails. Residual tree damage (trees/acre) was greater for the single-tree selection method than the shelterwood method.

Keywords: single-tree harvest, residual tree, shelterwood, clearcut, skidders, damage, cost.

Kluender, R., D. Lortz, W. McCoy, B. Stokes, and J. Klepac. 1995. Harvesting profitability variability by removal intensity and trees size. Proceedings: Council on Forest Engineering; 18th Annual Meeting. Cashiers, North Carolina. June 5-8. 173-186 pp.

ABSTRACT: Sixteen stands were Harvested at intensities (proportion of basal area removed) ranging from 0.27 to 1.00. Logging contractors used chain saws and rubber tired skidders. Harvested sites were similar in slope and tree size.
Harvest time per tree was inversely related to harvest intensity and directly related to tree size. Factors affecting total skidding time were skidding distance, skidders type, harvest intensity, load volume and number of stems.
Harvesting profitability per 100 cubic feet was near zero when removing trees averaging less than eight inches DBH. Harvest intensity had the greatest influence on profitability in small diameter timber. Harvest profitability was greatest when removing large trees at high levels of harvesting intensity.

Key Words: Harvest costs, productivity, profit, harvest modeling, economics.

Overdevest, C. and G.P. Green. 1994. Forest dependence and community well-being: a segmented market approach. Society and Natural Resources. 8:111-113.

ABSTRACT: Forestry activities, such as timber production and processing, are important economic activities in many rural communities. Yet the research on the relationship between forest dependence and community economic well-being is inconclusive. This article examines the relationship between forest dependence and county per capita income and poverty in rural Georgia. Forest dependence is conceptualized according to Averitt's theory of the dual economy. Core dependence, in other words dependence on well-capitalized pulp and paper firms, is expected to affect county-level economic well-being differently than dependence on periphery forest industry or high timberland concentrations. Regression analyses show that core forest industries are positively related to county per capita income, while periphery industries have no significant effect and timberland concentration is negatively related to per capita income and positively related to the poverty rate.

Keywords: core, dual economy, periphery, rural development, uneven development.

Phelps, J.E., and R.C. Smith. 1985. Wood-using industries: their contribution to the Missouri economy. School of forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife. University of Missouri-Columbia. EC-956. 19p.

ABSTRACT: A total of 1,896 firms processed Missouri-grown and harvested timber in 1983. They employed 20,927 persons and paid wages of $253 million. They purchased wood raw materials that cost $355 million and other goods and services for $406 million. The products they sold were valued at $1,343 million and the total value added by processing was $582 million.
The paper products sector, which uses pulp and paper produced in other states, included 143 firms that employed 12,300 people and paid wages of $230 million in 1982. Paper processors bought goods and services valued at $869 million and their products sold for $1,551 million. Value added was $680 million.
If a portion of other related activities, such as construction, transportation, and marketing, are considered in terms of value added, timber-based activity in Missouri in 1983 is valued at an estimated $1.8 billion.
In total in 1983, 2,000 firms with 33,000 employees who earned $483 million in wages produced goods valued at almost $3 billion.

Keywords: value added, economics, Missouri, employees, wages, services.

Wiedenbeck, J.K. and P.A. Araman. 1993. Possible demands for eastern hardwoods resulting from harvest restrictions in the Pacific Northwest. Forest Products Journal.
43(10): 51-57.

ABSTRACT: Efforts to conserve the habitat of the northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest have placed softwood timber supplies under a great deal of pressure and driven up the price of softwood lumber. Hardwoods could meet some of the demand for products that have previously been manufactured from softwood species. Hardwood structural lumber may soon become an economically feasible alternative to softwood lumber. Oriented strand board is likely to gain a greater share of the structural panel market. Opportunities also exist for treated hardwood lumber and treated hardwood shakes and shingles. Hard-woods might also be used to make increasing proportions of many secondary wood products such as moulding, millwork, and flooring.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, hardwoods, oriented strand board, lumber.

PUBLIC / SOCIAL ATTITUDES

Bliss, J.C., S.K. Nepal, R.T. Brooks, and M.D. Larsen. 1994. Forestry community or granfalloon. Journal of Forestry. 92(9): 6-10.

ABSTRACT: Are forest owners members of the forestry community, or is the community a granfalloon? Insofar as they control so much of the nation's forest resources, forest owners certainly "belong" to the forestry community. However, in their forestry knowledge and opinions they mirror the general public. The lines between forestry "advocates" and "adversaries" are far less distinct than may be commonly assumed and apparently do not depend on forest ownership.
Our Tennessee Valley region results are consistent with those found in two previous Alabama surveys (Bliss 1993a, 1993 b) and with results of recent research in Pennsylvania (Luloff et al. 1993). Perceived environmental effects are the litmus test of public approval in forestry issues. Environmental concerns temper views toward forestry practices, private property rights, and forest-based economic development. Most forest owners and non-owners desire a balance between property rights and environmental regulations, which ensures environmental protection.
When and where forestry is perceived to be environmentally friendly, it will enjoy public support. Opposition to individual forest practices is due, in part, to lack of knowledge about forests and their management. The public knows little about forestry, and it doesn't like what it doesn't know. Continuing to concentrate on education efforts on forest owners alone will do little to improve the acceptance of forest management by the American public.

Keywords: public, forestry, forest owners, community, Tennessee Valley, education.

Bliss, J.C., S.K. Nepal, R.T. Brooks, and M.D. Larsen. 1997. In the mainstream: environmental attitudes of mid-south forest owners. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 21(1):37-43.

ABSTRACT: A 1992 telephone survey of households in seven mid-South states provided data for comparing the opinions of NIPF owners with those of the general public. Topics explored included traditional forest management practices, governmental regulation of tree cutting to protect environmental values, and trade-offs between environmental protection, private property rights, and economic development. In each of these areas the views of NIPF owners were found not to differ significantly from those of the general public. A wide spread desire for environmental protection tempers views toward forest practices, forest-based economic development, and private property rights. The relationships between NIPF owners' demographic characteristics, ownership activities, and opinions were explored. Study results challenged common assumptions about NIPF owners, questioned the effectiveness of existing forestry education efforts, and argue for a stronger, more explicitly environmental orientation in all forestry activities.

Keywords: public, forestry, forest owners, NIPF, environment, education, economic.

Campbell, S.M., and D.B. Kittredge. 1996. Ecosystem-based management on multiple NIPF ownerships. Journal of Forestry. 94(2):24-29.

ABSTRACT: Both professional foresters and the general public are increasing interested in an ecosystem-based approach to forest management. This emerging interest raises the question of how such an approach might apply in a landscape that is dominated by numerous nonindustrial private forest (NIPF)ownerships. This article reports on the results of a pilot study of a voluntary incentive-based program in one town in western Massachusetts.
The chief criterion of success in the short term will be the number of neighborhoods landowners, acres and natural resource consultants involved; and whether a change in awareness or understanding of options has occurred. In the nine months since the programs inception, two Stewardship Neighborhoods have begun that involve eight landowner families, 457 contiguous acres, and three private consultants. The cost sharing incentive to develop voluntary opportunities for collaboration imposes no obligations, nor does it remove any landowner rights. We believe this approach of combining education, information, and incentives should be investigated as we attempt to encourage management of forested ecosystems in a landscape dominated by NIPF ownerships.

Keywords: Nonindustrial private landowner, NIPF, cost share, incentive, ecosystem, forest management.

English, B.C., C.D. Bell, G.R. Wells, and R.K. Roberts. 1997. Stewardship incentives in forestry: Participation factors in Tennessee. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 21(1): 5-10.

ABSTRACT: The likely effect of cost-share incentives on participation in Tennessee's Forest Stewardship Program was estimated and contributing factors were identified. Surveys were mailed to 4,000 nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners, and a logit model was developed to examine economic, physical, and behavior factors which affect the landowner participation decision. Data collected indicates the majority of landowners are concerned with water quality and wildlife habitat in addition to timber enhancements. Model results indicate that attitudes, experience, and knowledge of forestry programs may outweigh monetary incentives (50, 65, and 75% cost share) in the participation decision.

Keywords: Cost-share, Tennessee, forest stewardship, incentives, nonindustrial private forest landowners ( NIPF ).

Gramann, J.H. and Rudis, V.A. 1993. Effects of Hardwood retention, season of year, and landform on the perceived scenic beauty of forest plots in the Ouachita Mountains. Paper presented at the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment Conditions and Preliminary Findings. Hot Springs, AR. October 26-27, 1993. 223-227 pp.

ABSTRACT: Results from a study of the within-stand visual effects of alternative reproduction cutting methods on 20 experimental plots in the Ouachita National Forest are presented. Treatments varied in their level of hardwood retention from complete suppression of hardwoods to retention of 30 ft2/acre of basal area. Using color transparency film, plots were photo-sampled two growing seasons after treatments were imposed. The color slides were rated for their scenic beauty by students at Texas A&M University. Results showed that perceived scenic beauty increased with the level of hardwood retention and that summer, fall, and spring views were preferred over those taken during the winter. Ridgetop plots on north-facing slopes were rated as significantly more scenic thin plots on gentle-slope north-facing positions.

Keywords: Scenic, Ouachita National Forest, hardwood, reproduction cutting.

Harrison, B., D.H. Newman, and G. Macheski. 1997. The Georgia public and its forest: Attitudes and knowledge regarding forest resource use. (Yet unpublished).

ABSTRACT: Survey of the Georgia public. The results show that the general public has a fairly positive image of people within and associated with the forest products industry. A majority also have a knowledge of and give support for more forest management practices than we had anticipated. Although this study points to some possible areas that should be addressed by those in forest industry, it appears that those employed in the forestry sector have begun to realize that informing and involving the public is necessary not only for good public relations and improved community cooperation, but also for the long term maintenance of their ability to mange.

Keywords: survey, Georgia, public, forest industry.

Herrick, T.A., and V.A. Rudis. 1993. Visitor preference for forest scenery in the Ouachita National Forest. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 103-116

ABSTRACT: The majority of forest visitors interviewed between June through October 1991 and April through October 1992 preferred forest scenery that was "undisturbed", contained a "variety of natural features", or was associated with "natural" or "beauty" descriptions. Few respondents preferred "younger tree species with open areas." Results suggest that undisturbed conditions are important along with vegetation management to support a variety of natural features. Slight differences are noted when examining preferences by respondents' sex, age class, education level, principal recreation activity, month visited, and sites where interviewed. The order of questions appeared to affect the respondents' forest scenery descriptions. Interviews were conducted as part of an onsite survey involving a larger recreation-user study (CUSTOMER survey) for sites among four USDA Forest Service Ouachita National Forest ranger districts. Recommendations are made for using CUSTOMER survey data in future forest scenery preference research.

Keywords: visitor interviews, forest scenery, natural, beauty, survey.

Overdevest, C., D.B.K. English. 1993. Understanding people and natural resource relationships: Ouachita National Forest timber purchasers and changing timber harvest policy. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 241-252.

ABSTRACT: Seventeen woods workers addressed the Ouachita National Forest's 1967 shift from uneven-aged management to even-aged management and the 1988-89 shift to uneven-aged management of the forest. Respondents' unique views, values, and stakes are heard, and emergent similarities and differences among them are analyzed in a qualitative study. While a majority of 17 participants criticized the Ouachita National Forest's recent transition to uneven-aged management other study participants lauded the Ouachita National Forest's move to uneven-aged management. In the following pages, the variety of ways in which the woods workers perceived and valued the use and management of timber is reported. Studying perceptions and values regarding timber management aids us in generating a better understanding of people and natural resource relationships.

Keywords: Harvest method, even-aged management, uneven-aged management, ecosystem management, loggers, natural resource, people, views, values.

Rudis, V.A., J.H. Gramann, and T.A. Herrick. 1993. Esthetics evaluation. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 202-211.

ABSTRACT: An analysis of summer visual attributes and an overview of ongoing scenic quality research within selected shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.)
-hardwood stands in the Ouachita and Ozark National forests are presented. Within-stand visual attributes were reported prior to even-aged stand-level (Phase 11) treatment for twelve 40-acre stands in the north, east, and south regions and for plot-level (pre-Phase 1) visual attributes for twenty 0.5-acre plots examined two growing seasons after disturbance. No differences in visual attributes before treatment were apparent between 0.0 to 2.8 feet and 2.9 to 5.5 feet aboveground. From the stand-level study, there were no significant differences among regions but there were significant differences among stands and sample points. The plot-level study, a randomized complete block design with four blocks or landform positions and uneven-aged treatments, revealed differences by distance zone above ground for disturbed plots. Greater foliage and twig screening and reduced visual penetration in lower zone views were associated with increased overstory removal. Visual penetration was lower and foliage and twig screening was higher in low elevation landform positions compared with high elevation landform positions. Insight from both studies suggests that a significant difference between viewing zones in summer may be suitable as an index of recent stand disturbance.

Keywords: landform, visual attributes, scenic quality, pine-hardwood.

Weber, L.J. 1991. The social responsibility of land ownership: Ethics and profit gain new definitions. Journal of Forestry. 89(4): 12-15, 17, 25.

ABSTRACT: Following a review of the influences on how we make decisions of land use, the author suggest that we might want to make use of the evolving concept of social responsibility (within a framework of an emphasis on basic human rights) and that we might want to use it in a way that begins to bring elements of a new social value system right into the heart of contemporary discussion of economic policy and land use policy. The concept might allow us to move away from the emphasis on individual rights toward an emphasis on the common good without having to invent a whole new ethical vocabulary for the American Public.

Keywords: private ownership, social responsibility, society, stewardship.

Williams, R.A. and R.A. Kluender. 1997. Perspective of Arkansas' Non-industrial private forest land owners concerning their forested property. (Unpublished)

ABSTRACT: Today's non-industrial private forest (WF) owners must deal with a variety of problems and issues that were uncommon just a few years ago. Management issues, such as best management practices and private property rights; environmental issues, such as endangered species and land stewardship; and economic issues, such as capital gains tax, forestry incentive programs, and property tax must be considered if the overall operation is to be successful and survive.
To find out what Arkansas' NIPF owners think about these and other issues, personnel from the Arkansas Forest Resources Center and the University of Arkansas at Monticello and Fayetteville conducted a survey. The study was separated into a series of focus groups and a mail survey. The focus groups were made up of non-industrial private forest owners from four counties in Arkansas. The mail survey included the same four counties and eight additional counties. All of the counties used in the study were randomly selected and represented all parts of the state.
The focus group participants identified several major areas of concern to NIPF owners. These concerns included timber theft, trash dumping and improper payments for timber sold from their lands. Regional differences were observed in the use and knowledge regarding management practices, incentive programs and environmental concerns.
The survey results echoed the same theme of property rights as all participants believed they had a right to use their land in any fashion. However, most of the participants were not aware of the Endangered Species Act or Clean Water Act as it applies to private landowners. Finally, most participants considered themselves middle-ground environmentalists. They defined the term to mean land stewards who have concerns for the environment but are able to use the natural resources present on their lands. The information obtained during this study provide many insights into the behavior and attitudes of NIPF owners throughout Arkansas. The study has set in motion a series of landowner workshops that have been attended by over 500 participants.

Keywords: Non-industrial private forest (NIPF), survey, Arkansas.

Williams, R.A., D.E. Voth, and C. Hitt. 1996. Arkansas' NIPF landowners' opinions and attitudes regarding management and use of forested property. In: Symposium on Nonindustrial Private Forests: Learning from the Past, Prospects for the Future. February 18-20, 1996. Washington, D.C. USA. 230-237.

ABSTRACT: The focus group sessions provided good insight into the NIPF owners of Arkansas. Regional differences were identified as to land use preference and use of incentive programs. The Delta and Southwest regions were interested in growing and selling trees. They also used incentive programs to help them establish and grow their trees. The Ouachita and Ozark regions preferred grazing and recreation uses on their forest-lands. All participants felt that they were land stewards who used their land resources tempered with environmental sensitivity. Furthermore, they do not want land use regulations restricting activities on their lands. Some major concerns listed by all participants included trespassing, trash dumping, and timber theft. This NIPF owner study might be useful for developing landowner educational and extension programs and future research efforts that could better address the concerns and interests of Arkansas NIPF owners.

Keywords: Non-industrial private forest (NIPF), survey, Arkansas, stewardship.

Williams, R.A., T.L. Walkingstick, D.E. Voth, J. Earl, and C.P. Hitt. A characterization of the Non-industrial private forest landowners of Arkansas. (Not yet published)

ABSTRACT: The results reported here are based upon a mail survey that was sent to 2,400 forest landowners in a random sample of 12 Arkansas counties. Using standard procedures for mailed surveys, using a questionnaire that was designed from the previous one and from input received at four focus groups held in the four regions of Arkansas. Nearly 870 usable questionnaires were returned. Non-industrial private forest landowners held a high regard for being good stewards of the land, liked the rural environment and wanted to provide wildlife habitat. About half of the respondents have sold trees in the past and fewer than half plan to sell sometime in the future. The Coastal Plain region had the most owners who sell trees and manage their forest lands while the Ozark region had more landowners who owned forest lands for reasons other than income from their trees.

Keywords: survey, Arkansas, NIPF, Ozark region, forest.

Wolfe, K.L. and G. Chambers. 1995. Wooded landowner study. Southwest Missouri Resource Conservation and Development, INC. Prepared by: The Gallup Organization, Princeton, New Jersey. 27p.

ABSTRACT: The Gallup Organization (Gallup) has been commissioned by the Southwest Missouri Resource Conservation and Development, Inc. (Southwest Missouri RCD) to determine attitudes among landowners in terms of the primary reasons for owning their land, services used for their land, as well as what differences if any exist among landowners in lake counties and non-lake counties. Following are some interesting highlights of the study.
· Over four out of five (82 %) landowners viewed "beauty or nature appreciation" as being a somewhat or very important reason to own their wooded land.
· The primary activities respondents have performed on their land within the past ten years were planting trees, improving wildlife habitat, and cutting timber.
· More than one-third (37 %) of landowners intend to plant trees on their land, and almost two-thirds (65 %) of landowners stated that if provided with trees, they would plant them.
· Surprisingly over three out of five (61 %) landowners are completely unaware of any type of cost-share assistance. However, if cost-share assistance were available, nearly one-third of respondents would use it.
· Respondents tended to not seek out management advice or use any services. However, landowners who did use services ranked wildlife management assistance and forest
management practices as their most preferred services.
· Approximately one out of ten (11 %) landowners would be willing to pay for forest management services.

Keywords: management, landowner, survey, attitudes, cost-share.

RECREATION and TOURISM

Pona, J.S. 1996. 1996-2001 Missouri statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan (SCORP). Report to: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of State Parks, March 13, 1996. The SYNERGY Group Marketeam Associates, Inc. 92p.

ABSTRACT: This report, part of Missouri's State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) for 1996-2001, reviews and analyzes information relating to state and nationwide outdoor recreation trends, and projects recreation needs for the State of Missouri through the year 2001.
The Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) is a federal requirement which historically has enabled states to receive and administer federal Land and Water Conservation Funds (LWCF). In addition to this specific purpose, Missouri has used the SCORP as a planning tool for state outdoor recreation programs.
In October, 1995, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources' Division of State parks, commissioned a consultant team to conduct research for the 1996-2001 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) and report the results. Identified are 11 primary needs, which range from the expansion of facilities to the education of outdoor recreation users in land ethics.

Keywords: recreation, outdoor, Missouri Department of Natural Resources.

SILVICULTURE and HARVEST PRACTICES

Beck D.E. and R.M. Hooper. 1986. Development of a southern Appalachian hardwood stand after clearcutting. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(3): 168-172.

ABSTRACT: A mixed hardwood stand composed of 53% oak (Quercus spp.), 33% yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and 14% other species, was clearcut in 1963. Twenty years later a developing, even-aged stand of predominantly sprout origin is dominated by yellow-poplar, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.), and sweet birch (Betula lenta L.). The oaks are a minor and decreasing component.
This and other studies suggest that clearcuts on good sites in the Southern Appalachians will be dominated by aggressive intolerant species-mainly yellow-poplar. If a larger oak component is desired, measures to ensure strong advance reproduction and lessen competition from prolific sprouters such as red maple will be necessary.

Keywords: mixed hardwood, Appalachians, oak, maple, yellow-poplar, birch, black locust.

Beck, D.E. 1991. The shelterwood method. A research perspective. In: Proceedings of the Genetics/Silviculture workshop. Wenatchee, Washington. 252-258.

ABSTRACT: The fundamental purpose of the shelterwood method is to get a new crop of trees established before the old one is completely removed. Stands created by shelterwood cutting are usually even-aged, but there are variants in which the stands have two age classes or have trees ranging over several decades in age. The number and intensity of cuts, interval between cuts , and treatment of the understory and forest floor can be varied to achieve a wide range of environmental effects in both space and time. It can also be used to create a wide range in visual effects.
The shelterwood is an extremely flexible method that can be used to solve a wide range of regeneration problems. Practically all the major species of this country are amenable to its use and many demand it. In fact, it may be at least a partial answer for some of the failures now being experienced when planting following clearcutting. Given the option of maintaining two-aged stands, it has the potential to incorporate esthetic, wildlife, and other management needs into a regeneration method for species that are intolerant or intermediate in tolerance. As should be very clear from the examples given in this paper, successful application depends onsite-specific prescriptions based on a thorough understanding of the ecological

characteristics and reproductive requirements of the desired and competing species.

KEYWORDS: shelterwood, reproduction, esthetic, wildlife.

Bey, C.F. 1964. Advanced oak reproduction grows fast after clearcutting. Journal of Forestry. 62(5): 339-340.

ABSTRACT: In the spring of 1936, two 1-acre oak-hickory plots were clearcut on the Shawnee National Forest in southern Illinois. Twenty-seven years later, the study plots were fully stocked with oaks, hickory, black walnut, and yellow-poplar trees, sapling size and larger. The trees grew rapidly and were straight stemmed. Most of the oak "seedlings" that developed after the cutting were sprouts from older root systems. Where desirable advance oak reproduction is present, clearcutting will result in a high percentage of rapid-growing, straight-stemmed oaks.

KEYWORDS: oak, hickory, black walnut, clearcut, Illinois, advanced reproduction

Bradshaw, F.J., 1992. Quantifying edge effect and patch size for multiple-use silviculture - a discussion paper. Forest Ecology and Management. 48: 249-264.

ABSTRACT: An argument is presented that the essential difference between even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture ties in the proportion of the patch that is influenced by edge effect. These edge effects may extend well beyond the normally accepted boundary between even-aged and uneven-aged stands. Examples are presented to show that there is not one static edge effect but many dynamic edge effects and that the differences between even-aged and uneven-aged stands are represented by a continuum rather than there being a distinct division between them. In the continuing debate on appropriate forest management practices, the differences between even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture have been oversimplified and are often represented in their extremes. In this paper it is argued that research to quantify the magnitude and the extent of these edge effects is necessary to provide the essential data to design patch sizes to meet specific multiple-use management objectives. The integration of these data would provide the basis for objective trade-offs between various forest values and for the objective evaluation of the long-term impact of different silvicultural practices.

Keywords: silviculture, even-aged, uneven-aged, patch, edge effects.

Della-Bianca, L., and D.E. Beck. 1985. Selection Management in Southern Appalachian Hardwoods. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 9(3): 191-196.

ABSTRACT: A woodland tract of southern Appalachian cove hardwoods and mixed oak has been managed under the selection system of silviculture since 1946. Simply cutting in all commercial diameter classes (i.e., 6.0 inches and larger), as was the practice during the first 24 years, failed to develop enough desirable saplings and poles to maintain the system. After 1970, herbicide treatment of undesirable, tolerant understory species in openings created by, removal of large trees or groups of trees has improved the status of desirable saplings. Although long-term costs of management and yields are uncertain, the study suggests that creation of larger openings and treatment of undesirable understory species offers at least a chance for success with the selection system in southern Appalachian hardwoods.

Keywords: Appalachian, hardwoods, silviculture, oak, selection, openings, herbicide, understory.

Gammon, A.D., V.J. Rudolph, and J.L. Arend. 1960. Regeneration following clearcutting of oak during a seed year. Journal of Forestry. 58: 711-715.

ABSTRACT: Red and White Oaks, (Quercus rubra L. and Q. alba L.), when growing on good sites, produce high quality hardwood timber. Because of the value of high quality oak, forest managers are interested in maintaining these species on sites capable of producing quality trees. However, on the better hardwood sites, oak reproduction is usually out-numbered by lighter-seeded species such as American elm (Ulmus americana L.), Sugar and red maples (Acer saccharum Marsh. and A. rubrum L.) and white ash (Fraxintus americana L.), as well as by less desirable species such as sassafras (Sassafras albidium (Nutt.) Nees), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), and witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana L.).
A study was made of reproduction following clearcutting of an excellent 45-acre oak stand in 1950 in southern Michigan. The stand composition before cutting was primarily red and white oak, with lesser volumes of sugar maple, yellow-poplar, elm, white ash, and red maple. The reproduction was examined 2, 3, 5, and 7 years after logging.
Clearcutting of this oak stand has been followed by adequate reproduction to form a fully stocked new forest stand. However, the composition of the new stand bears little resemblance to that of the previous stand. The important species forming the new stand are white ash, sugar maple, American elm, black cherry and red maple, in that order. The small number of oaks now present occur in clumps of sprout origin, and their distribution in the stand is poor.
The clearcutting method has not resulted in obtaining adequate oak reproduction in the new stand on this area..
Keywords: Clearcutting, oak, maple, ash, hardwood.

Guldin, J.M. and J.D. Hodges. 1991. Uneven-aged silvicultural systems. The Consultant. Summer 1991. 10-12.

ABSTRACT: In the current wave of public concern about clearcutting, the selection method of uneven-aged silviculture has been consistently advocated as an alternative. Its advantages over clearcutting include improved cash flow, production of high-quality sawtimber and better aesthetics. As a result, many foresters with little or no education or experience in uneven-aged silviculture have been eagerly imposing the selection method in forest stands across the nation. However, in many cases the stands are really being managed by uninformed, mistaken or wishful intent rather than by strict attention to acknowledged uneven-aged standards. This paper presents guidelines for the application of uneven-aged silviculture. It provides a good comparison between uneven-aged and even-aged silviculture. It presents concerns that forest are being mismanaged as uneven-aged when in reality they are even-aged and inevitably it is the sustainability of the forest which will then suffer. This is a hidden dilemma, because the failure of selective cutting may not become apparent for several decades. Differences in interpretation of these guidelines among foresters may lead to debate about the importance of achieving these standards - which is encouraged. If systems that deviate--from these guidelines are proposed as uneven-aged, the proposers might do well to examine whether the deviations are not resulting from an effort to retain some semblance of even-agedness for convenience, operability or other non-silvicultural constraints. The ultimate failure of a poorly-grounded, uneven-aged system may not occur for several decades - by which time the future potential of the stand is irretrievably sacrificed. Foresters attempting to practice uneven-aged silviculture can check their prescriptions against these guidelines, and might want to consider adjusting their operations to ensure that the guidelines are achieved.

Keywords: Silviculture, even-aged, unevenaged, selection, selective.

Gullison, R.E. And J.J. Hardner. 1993. The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosqu Chimanes, Bolivia. Forest Ecology and Management. 59: 1-14.

ABSTRACT: The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosque Chi-manes, Bolivia. Selective harvesting in tropical forests has been shown to cause considerable damage to residual trees in stands that have relatively high densities of commercial trees. To complement existing studies, we measured forest damage caused by the selective harvesting of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla),a very low density species in the Bosque Chimanes, Bolivia. Secondary damage along main roads and skid trails accounted for most of the damage measured in the study site. Total damage was low (4.39% of the study area), but results from our simulation model suggested that damage could be decreased by up to 25% by requiring main roads and skid trails to be linear.
We used our simulation model to investigate the relationship between harvest intensity and forest damage. At low harvest intensities, most forest damage occurs from the construction of main roads. As harvest intensity increases, secondary damage from skid trails and tree felling comes to dominate forest damage. Overall, less damage will result to the forest for a given harvest volume if the harvest area is reduced and harvest intensity increased. Additional benefits to increasing harvest intensity are that re-entry into the logged site can be delayed, allowing the forest more time to recover, and regeneration of light-demanding species such as mahogany can be enhanced. The main impediment to increasing the harvest intensity in selective harvesting operations in Latin America is the lack of international markets for lesser known species, although there is some local and national demand.

Keywords: selection harvest, road, light, density, intensity.

Hannah, P., M. Kihn, and D. Kimmett. 1981. Some impacts of whole-tree harvesting under different silvicultural methods. Northern Logger. 29(11): 60-61 and 82-84.

Whole-tree harvesting is being used more widely to obtain wood fiber from our forests. In whole-tree harvesting the trees are felled with a chain saw or by mobile felling machines and hauled in-tact to a landing. At the landing saw logs can be removed and the remainder of the tree chipped and blown into trailer vans. Chips so derived are suitable for electric generation, for heating, or for manufactured products. Quality of chips for more exacting product requirements can be improved by removing bark, limbs and leaves before chipping.
Whole-tree harvesting involves removal of most of the above ground biomass from a forest site. This method of intensive forest harvesting raises concern about long-term soil nutrient status, soil compaction, soil erosion and water quality, and the long-term production potential of the site.
This papers primary emphasis is on the impacts to regeneration and the residual stand.

Keywords: residual stand, regeneration, whole-tree harvesting, fiber, chipped.

Hannah, P.R. 1987. Regeneration methods for Oaks. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 4(2): 97-101.

ABSTRACT: Oaks, one of the most abundant species groups in the eastern United States, are difficult to regenerate in the time, place, and abundance desired. Regeneration is hampered by insect damage to acorns, consumption of acorns by animals, and competition by other more shade tolerant vegetation. With animal populations managed at tolerable levels, adequate stocking of oak seedlings can be accomplished with most conventional regeneration methods. With the clearcut and seed-tree method the harvest must be timed with a good seed year. Oak stump sprouts will also contribute to the regeneration. The one-cut shelterwood method can work if there is adequate advanced regeneration. Two- or three-cut shelterwood should work well with about 60% crown cover in high shade or 60% stocking after the first cut. The group selection method should also be effective if regeneration is released from above once established. The key with all these methods is to control competing vegetation, keeping the oaks dominant and free to grow; oaks like plenty of light. Once oak is well established and about 5 ft high, any overwood should be carefully removed to minimize seedling damage. If desired for esthetic, wildlife, or economic purposes, a light canopy cover can be retained as a reserve shelterwood. Management of oak requires intensive silviculture; casual treatment of stands at long intervals will seldom result in good regeneration.

Keywords: regeneration, oak, clearcut, shelterwood, selection, seed-tree, silviculture, stocking.

Hawley, R.C. and A.W. Goodspeed.1932. Selection cuttings for the small forest owner. New Haven: Yale University. Yale University : School of Forestry. Bulletin No. 35.

ABSTRACT: A large part of the forest land in Connecticut is held in connection with farms or country homes. Such properties usually contain from a few to two or three hundred acres of woodland. While there are in the State solid blocks of forest, often covering several thousand acres, such extensive holdings are not considered in this publication. Large blocks of forest ultimately should go to the State to be incorporated within its forest system, or to the occasional landowner who desires a relatively large forest property.
The problem of the small forest landowner is here discussed. His wooded area is an essential part of the holding, either because it is interspersed among the arable fields or because it is needed to round out an otherwise irregular boundary or to give the desired setting for the homestead. In fact, unless he confines himself to house lots, the owner of rural property will find possession of forest land well-nigh unescapable. This situation is a distinct advantage of rural life, although it creates responsibility for intelligent use of forest areas. In the past, to the detriment of the owner's best interests, the forest has been too often totally neglected or improperly handled.
This bulletin, from 1932, makes a clear case for the small woodland owner to apply the selection system of timber harvest rather than clearcutting. This paper should make clear that the debate surrounding the appropriateness of silvicultural systems is not new, and in fact continues to this day.

Keywords: selection cutting, clearcutting, small woodland owner, silvicultural systems.

Johnson, Paul S. 1997. The silviculture of upland Central Hardwoods: 25 years of change. In: Meyer, Dan A., ed. Proceedings: 25th Annual Hardwood Symposium; 1997 May 7-10; Cashiers, NC. Memphis,TN: National Hardwood Lumber Association: 17-44.

ABSTRACT: The silviculture of upland central hardwoods has largely followed an ecological model based on the manipulation of existing natural vegetation and a reliance on natural regeneration, rather than on an agronomic model based on intensive culture and the introduction of new genotypes. On publicly owned and industrial lands, growing high quality sawtimber has been emphasized. Exploitive high grading has characterized timber harvesting on nonindustrial privately-owned forests. On well-managed forests, intermediate cuttings in even-aged stands have been widely used to improve stand quality and to accelerate growth of the residual stand. Enduring silvicultural tools include polymorphic site index curves, and stocking charts and equations. Abandoned or declining practices on public lands include clearcutting and autonomous silvicultural decisions by forest managers. Evolving or reemerging practices include uneven-aged silviculture using single-tree and group selection methods, shelterwood methods that incorporate artificial regeneration, and irregular shelterwood methods. Evolving silvicultural tools include predictive regeneration models, acorn production models, and prescriptions for prescribed burning for oak regeneration.

Keywords: regeneration, silviculture, upland central hardwood, even-aged, uneven-aged.

Johnson, P.S. 1993. Sources of oak reproduction. In: Loftis, David L.; McGee Charles E., eds. Symposium proceedings: Oak regeneration: serious problems, practical recommendations; 1992 September 8-1 0;Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-84. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 112-131.

ABSTRACT: There are three juvenile growth forms of oak that silviculturists commonly term "reproduction": (1) seedlings, (2) seedling sprouts, and (3) stump sprouts. A seedling is a form that has not experienced shoot dieback. Seedlings become seedling sprouts by surviving shoot dieback and resprouting one or more times. Seedling sprouts may persist and accumulate for decades in xeric forests and sometimes in mesic and hydric forests that are recurrently burned, grazed, or otherwise disturbed. Stump sprouts arise from the stumps of cut overstory trees after a thinning or final harvest and sometimes from the bases of fire-killed trees. When present before a silvicultural event such as clearcutting or shelterwood removal, all three growth forms are collectively called advance reproduction. The number, size, and spatial distribution of oak advance reproduction and the capacity of the parent stand (overstory) to produce oak stump sprouts can be used to assess a stand's oak regeneration potential, i.e., its capacity to occupy and dominate growing space at a specified time in the new stand. Because the population dynamics of oak reproduction vary greatly among species and different kinds of oak forests, this variation should be recognized in assessing stand regeneration potential.

Keywords: oak reproduction, seedlings, seedling sprout, stump sprout, xeric, mesic, silviculture, stand.

Larsen, D.R., M.A. Metzger, and P.S. Johnson. 1997. Oak rgenerations and overstory density in the Missouri Ozarks. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 27: 1-7.

ABSTRACT: Reducing overstory density is a commonly recommended method of increasing the regeneration potential of oak (Quercus) forests. However, recommendations seldom specify the probable increase in density or the size of reproduction associated with a given residual overstory density. This paper presents logistic regression models that describe this relation for a forest in the Ozark Highlands of Missouri that has been managed for 40 years by the single-tree selection system. In general, density of oak reproduction of a given size increases with decreasing residual stand basal area. However, the corresponding increase in the reproduction density at all levels of overstory density indicates low predictability of individual stands. The models nevertheless describe the average trend in the highly stochastic regeneration process. They also suggest that stand densities must be kept low (e.g., basal areas <14 m2 ha-1) to sustain the requisite recruitment of reproduction into the overstory under the single-tree selection method.

Keywords: overstory density, reproduction, Oak, regression model.

Larsen, D.R., Loewenstein, E.F., Johnson, P.S. 1999. Sustaining recruitment of oak reproduction in uneven-aged stands in the Ozark Highlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-203.St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 11 p.

ABSTRACT: Successful application of the single-tree selection system in Ozark oak forests depends on sustaining adequate recruitment of reproduction into the overstory. In turn, this requires maintaining stand density at ecologically appropriate levels. The ecological requirements for oak recruitment are discussed and guiding curves are presented that meet those requirements.

Keywords: Uneven-aged silviculture, stand structure, stand density, diameter distributions.

Loftis, D.L. 1982. Regenerating red oak on productive sites in the Southern Appalachians: a research approach. Proceedings: Second Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. Atlanta, Georgia. November 4-5. 144-150 pp.

ABSTRACT: Red oak (Quercus rubra L.) stems in a favorable competitive position are usually absent from recently created even-aged stands, even where red oak was a prominent component of the previous stand. Past research indicates that lack of adequate advance reproduction is the problem on productive sites. A quantitative approach to develop predictive models of regeneration development is outlined. The objectives of this research are to provide:
(1) a method of predicting performance of advance reproduction after harvest, and (2) the silvicultural practices which will enhance the development of advance reproduction. Using this information, the manager would be able to maintain red oak as a component in these stands.

Keywords: Red Oak, even-aged stands, reproduction, regeneration, silviculture.

Martin, A.J. and D.M. Hix. 1988. Regeneration development in an upland hardwood stand following a Shelterwood harvest. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 5(1): 46-49.

ABSTRACT: In 1958, 85 permanent mil-acre plots were established in a 3.5-ac shelterwood harvest area to monitor regeneration over time. Individual seedlings were numbered with metal tags in this predominantly red oak stand in east-central Wisconsin. Findings, after 26 growing seasons, indicate a low proportion of red oak in the present stand (7.8% of the basal area, 3.6% of the stems). The predominant species is now eastern hophornbeam (iron-wood), although other species such as white ash and basswood are common. All of the present red oak became established after the initial regeneration counts. Height growth and survival rates were significantly higher for those stems taller than the mean seedling height in 1959.

Keywords: Red Oak, regeneration, shelterwood.

McDonald, T. and B. Stokes. 1997. Visual quality assessment of alternative silvicultural practices in upland hardwood management. Forest operations for sustainable forests and healthy economies; Proceedings: Council on Forest Engineering, 20th annual meeting: 165-169 pp.

ABSTRACT: Visual impacts of forest operations are of increasing concern to forest managers. Tools are available for evaluating, and potentially avoiding, problems in visual quality resulting from poorly designed harvest unit boundaries. One of these visualization tools is applied in comparing various harvest unit shape alternatives in an upland hardwood stand on steeply sloping ground. Visualization tools were found to be most suited to placing small leave strips within larger clearcuts for obscuring some areas from view and giving the impression of a series of smaller cutting units.
Keywords: visualization rendering, visual impacts, quality aesthetics.

McGee, C.E. 1987. Clearcutting in upland hardwoods: Panacea or anathema? Hay, R.L., F.W. Woods, and H.DeSelm, eds. In: Proceedings of the Central Hardwood Forest Conference 6. February 24-26. Knoxville, Tennessee. 21-29 pp.

ABSTRACT: Clearcutting, a silvicultural process described by Pinchot as "the easiest of them all to apply", is described within complex current economic, environmental, and social constraints. Economics is shown to be the major factor favoring the practice, but continued prescribed use is supported by biological, environmental, and ecological factors as well. The paper suggests that most resistance to clearcutting originates from visual and aesthetic concerns. Compromise in the use of clearcutting is foreseen as likely on some land holdings but with undesirable results if the ecological requirements of preferred species of plants and wildlife are not met.

Keywords: Multiple use, forest controversy, harvest cutting methods, regeneration methods.

McGee, C.E. 1982. Low-quality hardwood stands: Opportunities for management in the interior uplands. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. General Technical Report. SO-40: 22 p.

ABSTRACT: Low-quality hardwood stands present opportunity and challenge in the Interior Uplands. This guidebook discusses the primary causes of low-quality hardwood stands and offers management options for regenerating or improving these stands. Methods for evaluating stand and site potential are provided. A technique for comparing stands and prescribing treatment is also suggested.

Keywords: upland hardwoods, conversion, natural regeneration, high-grading, clearcutting, sparse stands.

McGee, C.E. 1982. Regeneration after shear felling and chipping of upland hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. General Technical Report. SO-224: 13 p.

ABSTRACT: Low-quality hardwood stands on the Cumberland Plateau and the Western Highland Rim were harvested by shear felling and on-site chipping. Methods for introducing loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), white pine (P. strobus L.), short-leaf pine (P. echinata Mill.), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) seedlings into these stands with minimum or no site preparation were explored. The effect of limited site preparation on natural regeneration was also evaluated. The desirability of intentional development of planted pine-natural hardwood mixtures was studied. Intensive harvest was found to be a key to reduced site preparation needs.

Keywords: Natural regeneration, planted pines, pine-hardwood mixture, intensive harvest, Cumberland Plateau, Western Highland Rim.

Murphy, P.A. and J.B. Baker. 1991. Selection management of Shortleaf Pine in the Ouachita Mountains. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 15(1): 61-67.

ABSTRACT: Selection (uneven-aged) management was instituted in shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) stands on three experimental watersheds in the Ouachita Mountains. The residual stand structure imposed on each was 60 ft2 of basal area, a maximum tree diameter of 18 in., and a q-value of 1.2 for 1 in. dbh classes. Hardwoods were injected with herbicide before the initial harvest. The average annual per-acre growth for the three watersheds for the first 6-year management period was 2 ft2 of merchantable basal area growth, 57 ft3 of merchantable volume growth, and sawtimber growth of 157 board feet for the Doyle rule, 231 bd ft for the Scribner rule, and 274 bd ft for the International 1/4-inch rule. Basal area and merchantable volume growth were up to expectations, but sawtimber growth was not. Sawtimber growth may increase as stand structure improves under management.

Keywords: Selection, uneven-aged, shortleaf pine, Ouachita Mountains, hardwoods, structure.

Murphy, P.A., M.G. Shelton, and D.L. Graney. 1993. Group Selection: Problems and possibilities and for the more shade-intolerant species. Proceedings: 9th Central Hardwood Forest Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. March 8-10. 229-247 pp.

ABSTRACT: The group selection method is a hybrid, drawing key elements from both even- and uneven-aged silviculture. It is perhaps the least used and understood of all the reproductive cutting methods, but it is gaining popularity because of the current disfavor of even-aged silviculture. The group selection method appears promising for regenerating shade-intolerant and intermediate-tolerant species. Research has shown that larger openings create conditions favorable to shade-intolerant species, while smaller openings favor the more shade-tolerant ones. Larger openings consist of a central core that is relatively unaffected by the adjoining stand and a periphery with increasing levels of suppression. Operationally, most opening widths vary around one to two times the dominant tree height in the residual stand, but research has yet to verify the long-term stand dynamics within openings. Even less is known about effective stand-regulation options available to provide sustained yields. One route is to adapt stand structure or volume control from the single-tree selection system. An alternative is to use :
(1) the silvical requirements of the target species to set opening size, and
(2) area control to determine the number of openings to create each cutting cycle.
This latter approach seems to have advantages for applications in even-aged stands that are being converted to uneven-aged ones.
Keywords: Group selection, even-aged, uneven-aged, opening, single-tree selection.

Phillips, D.L. and D.J. Shure. 1990. Patch-size effects on early succession in southern Appalachian forest. Ecology. 71(1): 204-212.

ABSTRACT: Four sizes of forest openings (0.016, 0.08, 0.4, and 2.0 ha, two replicates each) were established in a Southern Appalachian forest to examine the effects of disturbance size on early successional community structure and function. Solar radiation, soil temperature, and air temperature were all higher in large openings than small openings and increased from edge to center of disturbance patches. Aboveground net primary productivity (NPP) was 3-4 times as high in large (2.0 ha) as small (0.0 1 6 ha) openings, presumably in response to greater light availability in large patches. Stump and root sprouts of tree species accounted for the largest fraction of NPP in all patch sizes. Herbs, vines, shrubs, advance regeneration trees, and tree seedlings had progressively smaller NPP, respectively. Vegetation biomass reached 0.7-2.6% of undisturbed forest levels and aboveground NPP reached 17-58% of forest levels by the 2nd yr after cutting. Plant species richness was generally higher in large than small patches. Tree species composition shifted considerably following disturbance. Liriodendron tulipifera was important before and after logging. Large canopy dominants such as Oaks and hickories were relatively unimportant sources of sprouts during early revegetation. Instead, minor canopy and understory species such as Robinia pseudoacacia, Halesia carolina, Acer rubrum, Cornus florida, and Magnolia fraseri were the major sprouters in all patch sizes. The N-fixing black locust (Robinia) was much more important in large than small openings. Disturbance size within the Southern Appalachians thus affects microenvironment, species composition, and NPP during early revegetation.

Keywords: aboveground net primary productivity, disturbance, forest, gaps, patch dynamics, Robinia pseudoacacia, Southern Appalachian Mountains, sprouting, succession.

Phillips, D.R. and J.A. Abercrombie, Jr. 1987. Growth and development of Shortleaf Pine-Hardwood mixed stands four years after regeneration. Proceedings: Fourth Biennial Southern silvicultural Research Conference. Atalanta, Georgia. Nov.4-6. 162-165 pp.

ABSTRACT: Three four-year-old shortleaf pine-hardwood mixed stands were inventoried in the winter of 1985. The stands had been established on the Sumter National Forest through low intensive site preparation that involved spring chainsaw felling of residuals and summer burning. Results show that 304 to 414 of the 454 planted pines per acre were free-to-grow after 4 years. Average total height of the pines was 7.9, 8.4 and 9.3 feet in the three stands. Corresponding average total heights for hardwoods was 5.8, 4.9,and 4.7 feet. These mixed stands are well stocked with pines and commercially important hardwoods and thus have high timber value potential. They also can provide many nontimber benefits.

Keywords: Shortleaf pine, hardwood, regeneration.

Phillips, D.R. and J.A. Abercrombie, Jr. 1987. Pine-Hardwood mixtures-A new concept in regeneration. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 11(4): 192-197.

ABSTRACT: Spring felling of standing residuals left after a commercial clearcut, controlled burning the following summer, and hand planting of approximately 450 pine seedlings per acre can produce productive pine-hardwood mixtures on many medium sites in the Southeast. Stand establishment costs are approximately one-half that for conventional pine plantations using intensive site-preparation techniques. These stands have the potential to enhance wildlife, increase forest diversity, improve visual attractiveness, and provide good overall productivity. Early growth of individual pine trees on three study sites was approximately equal to that of pines growing in pure pine plantations of the same age. After 4 growing seasons, 304 to 414 free-to-grow shortleaf pines (Pinus echinata Mill.) per acre in the study stands averaged 7.9 to 9.3 feet in total height. Oaks (Quercus L. spp.), the predominant hardwood component of the stands, averaged 4.8 to 6.4 feet in total height after 4 years. If correctly applied, this new regeneration technique has the potential to bring many thousands of acres under management that presently are left unattended following harvest.

Keywords: pine, hardwood, oak, shortleaf, clearcut, burn, diversity.

Roach, B.A. 1968. Is clear cutting good or bad? Keep Tennessee Green Journal. 8(4): 4-5, 12-14.

ABSTRACT: I set out to answer the question, Is clearcutting good or bad ? This question can no more be answered than one can say whether a hammer or a saw is good or bad. Clear-cutting is only a tool.
As with any powerful tool, clear-cutting must be used carefully and with thought to possible consequences. A clearcut patch will produce no usable products for sometime. Therefore the user must schedule his cuttings to suit long-term management objectives, so that reasonably uniform production is possible.
Finally, not just clearcutting, but all forestry practices, must be applied with consideration not only to the public benefits but also to publics desires. Nowadays we cannot practice forestry in a social vacuum.

Keywords: clearcut, management objectives, public.
Roach, B.A. 1962. Practical silviculture for central hardwood stands. Southern Lumberman. October-1. 34-35, 38.

ABSTRACT: Several decades of silvicultural research in the Central Hardwoods have yielded a wealth of useful information. By no means do we have all the answers. But out of the mass of knowledge that has accumulated certain principles have developed that can serve as excellent guides to practical forest management. Let us consider briefly then what we know and what we believe about growing hardwoods in the Central States.

Keywords: silviculture, central hardwoods, thinnings, forest, woodland, clearcut, uneven-aged.

Roach, B.A. 1974. What is selection cutting and how do you make it work; What is group selection and where can it be used? Applied Forestry Research Institute. Syracuse, New York. Miscellaneous Report No. 5, October. 9 p.

ABSTRACT: Two Questions: What is selection cutting and how do you make it work? What is group selection and where can it be used?
Most of the principles I will discuss in answering these questions seem broadly applicable to nearly any forest type, but my discussion and answers are aimed specifically at the difficulties of managing the eastern hardwoods.
Answers to the above questions require a good understanding about three elements basic to the practice of forestry, but about which there is much confusion. These elements are regeneration methods, silvicultural systems, and regulatory systems.
In answering the aforementioned questions basic forestry, ways to sustain yield, marking for a selection cut, and terminology used are all addressed by B. Roach.

Keywords: regeneration, silvicultural systems, regulatory systems, group selection, single-tree.

Roach, B.A. and S.F. Gingrich. 1968. Even-aged silviculture for upland Central Hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 355. 39 p.

ABSTRACT: The past practice of selection cutting in overmature and defective stands of these hardwoods has often resulted in a gradual deterioration of both species composition and tree quality for timber production. However, on some special areas of these hardwood forest lands, esthetics, recreation, or other values are more important than timber, and therefore selection cutting may still be the most desirable cutting practice. Long-term timber profits from lands so cut, of course, will almost always be less than timber profits obtained by even-aged management and clearcutting of mature hardwood stands. A careful balancing of all benefits will have to be made in each individual case where there are strong competing demands.
Clearcutting, as a means of reproducing even-aged stands composed of preferred species, has shown great promise as an efficient and productive method of growing timber. The orderly renewal of our forests and the development of thrifty young stands will assure our Nation a continued adequate supply of quality wood products while at the same time increasing the value of the forest resource.
This handbook brings together the results of more than 20 years of research and experience, both public and private, in the culture of upland hardwood stands. Many of the recommendations given have been applied successfully on public and private lands for several years. This handbook is an elaboration and expansion of the Timber Management Guide for Upland Central Hardwoods prepared by the same authors under the former Central States Forest Experiment Station, last issued in December 1962 and revised through 1965.

Keywords: Even-aged, timber management, central upland hardwoods, clearcutting, reproduction.

Sander, I.L. and F.B. Clark. 1971. Reproduction of upland hardwood forests in the central states. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 405. 25 p.

ABSTRACT: This handbook summarizes data from studies of central hardwood reproduction after harvest cuttings ranging from single-tree selection cutting to complete clearcutting. Regardless of how the stands were cut, natural reproduction was always adequate to produce acceptable new stands; but the heavier cuttings favored intolerant species and faster growth of all species. Reproduction present after harvest cutting consisted of varying proportions of new seedlings, advance reproduction, new sprouts from advance reproduction, and stump sprouts. The proportion of these different types of reproduction in the new stand varied with the silvical requirements of the species and the harvest cutting method used. Little new reproduction was found after single-tree selection or other partial cuttings, but after clearcutting or group selection cutting new sprouts from advance reproduction and new seedlings predominated. Regardless of the cutting method used, yellow-poplar reproduction was primarily seedlings; but oaks, hickory, maples, blackgum, sassafras, and dogwood came mostly from advance reproduction. Black cherry and white ash were both of seedling origin and advance reproduction. To reproduce upland central hardwoods most successfully, the cutting method chosen must create conditions that satisfy the silvical requirements of the species wanted in the new stand.

Keywords: advanced reproduction, central hardwood, clearcutting, group selection, silvical, oak, hickory, maple.
Sander, I.L. 1972. Size of oak advance reproduction: Key to growth following harvest cutting. U.S. Department of Agriculture. North Central Forest Experiment Station. Forest Service. Research Paper NC-79. 6 p.

ABSTRACT: When a mature upland oak stand is harvested, the oaks in the new stand come from advance reproduction already present on the area. Some oak reproduction is present under most mature stands over the commercial range of oak species. However, the amount varies greatly from stand to stand, and ranges from almost nothing to thousands of stems per acre (Minckler and Jensen 1959, Trimble and Hart 1961, Arend and Scholz 1969). The oak component of newly regenerated stands is sometimes inadequate even when oak advance reproduction is abundant, because it fails to grow fast enough to compete successfully. Thus, numbers alone do not indicate how many oaks will become dominant in the new stand.
An Ohio study showed the size of the advance reproduction to be an important determinant of new oak sprout growth following clearcutting (Sander 1971). In this study the old stems were cut off near the ground to force them to sprout. Growth of the new sprouts was related to the diameter of the old stem at the ground line; the larger the old stem cut off, the faster the sprout that originated from its stump grew.
These results have been confirmed by a study in southern Illinois reported here. This study shows that oak reproduction growth following overstory treatment depends on size of the reproduction before cutting whether or not an advance reproduction stem was cut or broken off during logging, and the amount of overstory left after cutting.
Keywords: advanced reproduction, oak, logging, upland oak, harvest, regeneration, clearcutting.

Smith, H.C., N.I. Lamson, and G.W. Miller. 1989. An esthetic alternative to clearcutting? Deferment cutting in eastern hardwoods. Journal of Forestry. 87(3): 14-18.

ABSTRACT: A type of residual tree or deferment practice for Allegheny hardwoods has been done with saplings, poles, and small sawtimber trees (Marquis et al.1984, Bennett and Armstrong 1981). Residual trees minimize deer problems; retain tolerant species in the overstory canopy; reduce the risk of forested areas being transformed to nearly permanent savannas of grass, fern, sedge, and weeds; provide a return during the first one-third to one-half of the rotation; and produce wood and seed. This paper describes deferment cutting in 75- to 80-year-old, second-growth Appalachian hardwood stands and presents 5-year results on tree and stand responses.

Keywords: Appalachian hardwood, deferment cutting, deer.
Smith, H.C., and G.W. Miller. 1987. Managing Appalachian hardwood stands using four regeneration practices----34-year results. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry.
4(4): 180-185.

ABSTRACT: Adjacent Appalachian hardwood stands in West Virginia established on excellent growing sites were managed for a 34-year period using four regeneration practices. These practices included a commercial clearcut, 15.5-in diameter-limit, and two single-tree selection practices. An uncut area was maintained as a control. Stand development, growth response, and some stumpage revenue data were summarized for each treatment. At 34 years after the initial treatments, the commercial clearcut stand had the greatest variety of tree species for future management. This stand was dominated primarily by yellow-poplar and black locust. Selection and 15.5-in diameter-limit treatments promoted sugar maple on these excellent sites. Stand quality improved through management. After 34 years, the control area was worth $1,554/ac, and an intensively managed selection area was worth $1,214/ac, but the control area contained twice the sawtimber volume. Other preliminary value comparisons indicate that landowners benefit from some type of management compared to doing no management.

Keyword: Appalachian hardwood, diameter-limit, single- tree selection, clearcut, West Virginia.

Stokes, B.J., R.A. Kluender, J.F. Klepac, and D.A. Lortz. 1997. Harvesting impacts as a function of removal intensity. Proceedings of a symposium organized by IUFRO Project Group P3.11.00 at the IUFRO World Congress. Tampere, Finland. August 6-12, 1995. 207-216.

ABSTRACT: Single-tree selection, group selection, shelterwood, seed-tree, and clearcut harvesting methods were evaluated for residual site impacts. The stands were harvested during the summer of 1993 on the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Manual felling and rubber-tired skidders were used to harvest all 23 stands. Percentage of area in primary skid trails was 8.2, 9.6, 13.2, 12.5, and 13.7 for the single-tree selection, group selection, shelterwood, seed-tree, and clearcut treatments, respectively. The single-tree selection treatment had the most undisturbed soil area (39.4 percent) after harvesting, as compared to 25.6 percent for the group selection, 13.1 for the shelterwood, 9.1 for the seed-tree, and 6.0 for the clearcut. Residual pine damage was greatest for the group selection treatment.

Keywords: Single-tree, group, selection, shelterwood, clearcut, Arkansas, soil, damage.
Tang, S.M and E.J. Gustafson. 1997. Perception of scale in forest management planning: Challenges and implications. Landscape and Urban Planning. 39(1): 1-9.

ABSTRACT: Forest management practices imposed at one spatial scale may affect the patterns and processes of ecosystems at other, scales. These impacts and feedbacks on the functioning of ecosystems across spatial scales are not well understood. We examined the effects of silvicultural manipulations simulated at two spatial scales of management planning on landscape pattern and assessed the implications for forest-interior bird species. Landscape context was taken into consideration in determining harvest locations in the landscape-base management planning scenario but not in the stand-base planning scenario (where the focus of planning activities was at the level of individual stands and the context in which stands were located was not considered). We also compared ecological implications of patterns created at the stand and landscape levels by even- and uneven-age silvicultural systems. We used a harvest simulator (HARVEST) to simulate even-age, uneven-age and a combination of even- and uneven-age management systems for a period of 5 decades in the two forest management planning scenarios. Clearcuts of 5 to 16 ha were simulated to represent even-age management and small openings of 0.09 to 22 ha scattered throughout a stand were simulated to represent uneven-age management. Forest management that considered landscape context generated greater landscape total core area compared to that of the stand-base planning. There was a difference in landscape mean patch size, interspersion index, Simpson's diversity index and total core area for patches defined by stand age between stand- and landscape-base management planning. These results indicate that different landscape patterns can be produced by management planning conducted at different spatial scales. The scale of focus should depend on the management goals. Silvicultural manipulations at the stand level can cause the creation of different patterns at the stand and landscape levels. Such differences can lead to different ecological implications at each of those levels, thereby making it difficult to simply aggregate stand-level responses to the landscape-level. Furthermore, the ecological effects of landscape patterns on processes can be highly variable as the effects depend on how patches are defined.

Keywords: forest management planning, scale, spatial pattern, forest birds, timber harvest, fragmentation, landscape metrics.

Tritton, L.M., C.W. Martin, J.W. Hornbeck, and R.S. Pierce. Biomass and nutrient removals from commercial thinning and whole-tree clearcutting of Central Hardwoods. Environmental Management. 11(5): 659-666.

ABSTRACT: The objective of this research was to evaluate the impacts of increasing product removal on biomass and nutrient content of a central hardwood forest ecosystem. Commercial thinning, currently the most common harvesting practice in southern New England, was compared with whole-tree clearcutting or maximum aboveground utilization. Using a paired-watershed approach, we studied three adjacent, first-order streams in Connecticut. During the winter of 1981-82, one was whole-tree clearcut, one was commercially thinned, and one was designated as the untreated reference. Before treatment, living and dead biomass and soil on the whole-tree clearcut site contained 578 Mg ha-1 organic matter, 5 Mg ha-1 nitrogen, 1 Mg ha-1 phosphorus, 5Mg ha-1 potassium, 4 Mg ha-1 calcium, and 13 Mg ha-1 magnesium. An estimated 158 Mg ha-1 (27% of total organic matter) were removed during the whole-tree harvest. Calcium appeared to be the nutrient most susceptible to depletion with 13% of total site Ca removed in whole-tree clearcut products. In contrast, only 4% (16 Mg ha-1) of the total organic matter and £2% of the total nutrients were removed from the thinned site. Partial cuts appear to be a reliable management option, in general, for minimizing nutrient depletion and maximizing long-term productivity of central hardwood sites. Additional data are needed to evaluate the long-term impacts of more intensive harvests.

Keywords: nutrient, whole-tree, clearcutting, central hardwood, partial cuts.

Walter, W.D., and P.S. Johnson. 1999. Sustainable Silviculture for Missouri's Oak Forest. Paper presented at the 1999 Environmental Sustainability and Public Policy Conference: Towards a Vision for Missouri's Private Forest. University of Missouri-Columbia. (Yet unpublished)

ABSTRACT: Given the forest types common to Missouri, and historic forest uses in the state, a discussion is presented on what is sustainable forestry. Forestry is in the process of moving away from the ruling theory of sustained yield and toward the paradigm of sustainable forest. Presented are the silvicultural methods (clearcutting, shelterwood, seed tree, and single-tree and group selection) and how they may fit the paradigm of sustainable forestry in Missouri.

Keywords: clearcut, shelterwood, single-tree, group selection, Missouri, oak, hickory, sustainable forestry, Central Hardwood.
SOIL AND NUTRIENTS

Bird, G. A., and L. Chatarpaul. 1986. Effect of whole-tree and conventional forest harvest on soil microarthropods. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 64: 1986-1993.

ABSTRACT: The effect of whole-tree and conventional harvest on soil microarthropods, Collembola and Acari, was investigated in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest on the Canadian Shield. Harvesting had a major effect on their populations which declined to 56 and 68% of those on the uncut plot for the whole-tree and conventional harvest plots, respectively. Species composition was unaffected by harvesting although there were shifts in dominance. Total numbers of microarthropods and numbers of Oribatei, Prostigmata, and Mesostigmata found on the uncut plot were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than on harvested plots. Slightly higher (P > 0.05) numbers of Collembola were recorded from the conventional harvest plot than the uncut plot. Oribatei, Prostigmata, and Collembola were more abundant (P < 0.01) on the conventional harvest plot than the whole-tree harvest plot. Of the two forest harvesting methods, conventional harvest had a lesser impact on soil microarthropods. Because the forest soil fauna is intimately involved in decomposition, nutrient cycling, and soil formation, our findings suggest that long-term site productivity will be greater following conventional harvest than whole-tree harvest.

Keywords: whole-tree harvest, soil, nutrient cycling, microarthropods, conventional harvest, conifer, hardwood, decomposition.

Carter, E., B. Rummer, B. Stokes. 1997. Site disturbances associated with alternative prescriptions in an upland hardwood forest of northern Alabama. Proceedings, 1997 ASAE Annual International Meeting. Minneapolis, Minn. Paper No. 975013.

ABSTRACT: A study was installed in an upland hardwood forest to evaluate the site impacts associated with three alternative prescriptions - clearcut, deferment cut, and strip cut. Two methods of site impact assessment were employed:
1) assignment of disturbance classes to selected points within each treatment area and 2) measurement of soil bulk density, gravimetric water content, and soil strength at points previously evaluated for soil disturbance class.
Clearcut and deferment cut treatments produced the greatest impacts as evidenced by higher percentage of slightly and highly disturbed areas and increases in bulk density and soil strength. Strip cut treatments had less impact on a stand wide basis but cut strips experienced similar impacts.

Keywords: Hardwood, clearcut, deferment cut, strip cut, soil strength, bulk density, disturbance class.
Fahey, T.J., J.W. Hughes, M. PU, and M.A. Arthur. 1988. Root decomposition and nutrient flux following whole-tree harvest of Northern Hardwood Forest. Forest Science. 34(3): 744-768.

ABSTRACT: Decomposition of roots of four dominant species (Acer saccharum, Betula alleghaniensis, Fagus grandifolia, Picea rubens) in a northern hardwood ecosystem was measured following whole-tree harvest of watershed 5 at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. To quantify the importance of element release from tree root systems after forest harvest, measurements of macronutrient (N, K, P, Ca, Mg) release from roots of seven diameter (mm) classes (< 0.6, 0.6-1.0, 1.0-2.5, 2.5-5.0, 5-10,10-20, 20- 100) were combined with information on root system nutrient content. Decay of fine roots (all species) was initially rapid but declined abruptly after the first summer. Ash-free weight loss from small woody roots decreased with increasing root diameter and was much slower than decay rates for corresponding aboveground tissues (twigs and branches). Weight loss rates among species generally were not significantly different; however, large woody roots (10- 100 mm diameter) of sugar maple decayed much more rapidly than the other species.
Rapid release of K and Mg was observed for all roots. Initially high rates of N and F, release were observed for fine roots, whereas these nutrients were effectively retained in decaying woody roots. Retention of Ca was observed for all roots, and significant accumulation of Ca was observed in the larger size classes of woody roots. Particularly for N and K, release from decaying roots was an important nutrient flux pathway supplying stream outflow and vegetation regrowth in the first two years following forest harvest.

Keywords: Mineralization, nutrient content, root biomass, root.

Henderson, G.S., C.D. Settergren, and D.M. Smith. 1980. Nitrogen and cation mobility following an oak-hickory harvest in the Missouri Ozarks. In: Proc. 3rd Cent. Hardwoods For. Conf. University of Missouri. 77-81.

ABSTRACT: The influence of forest harvest and a stream channel buffer strip on nutrient concentrations in surface water was studied for an area in southwest Missouri vegetated with oak and hickory. Water samples for three types of collection sites (surface runoff plots, harvested subcatchments with and without a buffer strip, and control and treatment watershed outlets) were analyzed for NH4+ -N, NO3- -N, Ca, Mg, K and Na. Harvesting increased nutrient concentrations in surface runoff by 44, 67, 37, 52, 29, and 85% for NH4+ -N, NO3- -N, Ca, Mg, K and Na, respectively. Concentrations of nutrients decreased as the surface water moved into the intermittent drainage and were much reduced by the time the streamflow passed from the base of the treated watershed. Harvesting in headwater portions of larger watersheds appears to have little detrimental effect on quality of water leaving the larger watershed area. The buffer strip reduced concentrations of all nutrients except Na and NO3- -N. Soil water temperature conditions conducive to nitrification in areas near the intermittent drainage where a buffer strip was not present are probably responsible for these higher NO3- -N levels. Significant amounts of nutrient redistribution are occurring within the harvested area but only a portion of these are leaving the watershed in streamflow.

Keywords: nutrient cycling, buffer strips, water quality, streamflow, runoff, streamflow chemistry, forest disturbance.

Hoekstra, J.M., R.T. Bell, A.E. Launer, and D.D. Murphy. 1995. Soil arthropod abundance in Coast Redwood Forest: effect of selective timber harvest. Environmental Entomology. 24(2): 246-252.

ABSTRACT: Soil arthropod communities were surveyed and compared in litter layers of selectively harvested and nonharvested forests of coast redwood. Sequoia sempervirens, to assess impact of a 15-yr selective timber harvest cycle. Abundance of four guilds (microphytophages, panphytophages, macrophytophages, and predators) were estimated from litter samples taken from three forest classes: uncut old growth, mature second growth last harvested before 1920, and selectively harvested forest sampled 14-yr after harvest. Microphytophage and panphytophage abundance did not vary significantly among forest classes. Macrophytophages showed significantly higher abundance in selectively harvested forest, whereas predators showed significantly reduced abundance in selectively harvested forest. Because no significant differences in macrophytophage and predator abundance were found between old growth and mature second growth classes, observed differences are attributed to the selective timber harvest regime. Furthermore, since selectively harvested forest was sampled for arthropods 14-yr after harvest, it appears that the 15-yr cycle is of insufficient duration to allow full recovery of soil arthropod communities from the effect of selective timber harvest. In addition, it is likely that species are at high risk of extinction, based on the striking observation that an entire order, Diplura, was absent from all samples taken from selectively harvested sites. Possible explanations for observed differences in guild abundance and potential implications for long-term maintenance of soil arthropod diversity are discussed.

Keywords: Soil arthropods, sustainable timber harvest, biodiversity conservation.

Hornbeck, J.W., C.W. Martin, R.S. Pierce, F.H. Bormann, G.E. Likens, J.S. Eaton. 1986. Clearcutting Northern Hardwoods: effects on hydrologic and nutrient ion budgets. Forest Science. 32(3): 667-686.

ABSTRACT: Two even-aged management systems, progressive strip cutting and block clearcutting, have been studied since 1970 on small watersheds at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. In the progressive strip cutting, all merchantable trees were harvested in a series of three strips over 4 years (1970-74). In the block clearcutting, all trees were harvested in a single operation in 1970. Block cutting caused an increase in water yield of 673 mm over 10 years compared to an increase of 397 mm for strip cutting. Maximum annual increases were 278 mm in the first year after block cutting versus 114 mm in the third year of the strip cutting sequence (two-thirds of watershed harvested). Nearly all of the increases on both watersheds occurred during the growing season months of June through September. For the 10-year period after stripcutting, nutrients lost as dissolved ions in streamflow were increased by 27 kg ha-1 for Ca2+, 30kg ha-1 , for K +, and 22 kg ha-1 for N. Corresponding increases after block clearcutting were 40kg ha-1 , for Ca2+, 48 kg ha-1 for K +, and 59 kg ha-1 for N. The combined losses of nutrients to product removal and increased leaching did not exceed 3 percent of preharvest capital for any of the nutrients studied. The losses assume greater importance when contrasted with plant available capitals of nutrients. However, with careful logging and continued use of intervals of 70 to 120 years between harvests, clearcutting of northern hardwoods should not have adverse impacts onsite nutrient capital.

Keywords: Betula, soil nutrients, stand regeneration, biomass.

Johnson, C.E., A.H. Johnson, T.G. Huntington, and T.G. Siccama. 1991. Whole-tree clear-cutting effects on soil horizons and organic-matter pools. Soil Science Society of America. 55(2): 497-502.

ABSTRACT: Timber harvest results in physical disturbance and relocation of soil materials. This study was undertaken to assess the degree to which logging altered soil horizonation, bulk density, and organic-matter pools at a northern hardwood forest site underlain by Spodosols. Soils were sampled immediately before and 3 yr after the commercial whole-tree harvest of Watershed 5 at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in central New Hampshire. The activity of logging machinery resulted in redistribution of organic matter within the solum. Thus, the thickness of the O horizon decreased from 6.9cm to 5.5 cm, while O horizon mass and organic-matter content increased (from 8.7-12.2 kg m-7 and from 5.4-5.7 kg m-2, respectively). One-fourth of the post harvest soil pits exhibited an Ap horizon, which was not present prior to harvesting and was formed from soil of the O, E, and Bh horizons. Compaction of the soil during the logging operation resulted in increased (5-15%) bulk density in the upper 20 cm of mineral soil. The total pool of organic matter in the solum did not change following harvesting. Thus, losses of organic matter via stream water and respiration were approximately balanced by inputs from decaying roots and leaf litter. The conservation of organic matter following harvesting is important in preserving soil fertility, since labile nutrients in northeastern Spodosols are generally associated with organic matter.

Keywords: Soil, organic matter, compaction, hardwood forest, Spodosols, logging, fertility.

Johnson, C.E., A.H. Johnson, and T.G. Siccama. 1991. Whole-tree clear-cutting effects on exchangeable cations and soil acidity. Soil Science Society of America.
55(2): 502-508.

ABSTRACT: It has been hypothesized that logging reduces soil fertility and site productivity. The objective of this study was to determine short-term (3-yr) effects of logging on soil pH, exchangeable cations, and cation-exchange capacity (CEC). We intensively sampled soils before and after the whole-tree harvesting of a northern hardwood forest at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest New Hampshire. Cation-exchange capacity decreased by 23% in the Oa horizon and 24% in the E horizon but increased by 67% in the Bh horizon and 34% in the Bs1 horizon. Overall, the number of exchange sites in the solum did not change appreciably with harvesting (202 vs. 206 kmolc ha-1). In the Oa, E, and Bb horizons, there was a decrease in the ratio of exchangeable base cations (Ca, Mg, and K) to exchangeable Al and H. As a result, base saturation decreased from 49 to 39% in the Oa, from 22 to 17% in the E, and from 14 to 11% in the Bh horizon. Soil pH decreased by 0.11, 0.32, and 0.24 pH units in the Oa, E, and Rh horizons, respectively. The acidification of the E and Bh horizons was probably the result of increased production of H through nitrification and mobilization of Al from the forest floor and mineral soil, while mixing of mineral soil into the forest floor largely explains the changes in the chemistry of the Oa horizon. At Hubbard Brook, accelerated leaching losses of nutrient cations following clear-cutting were not the result of depletion of exchangeable cation pools.

Keywords: logging, fertility, productivity, pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), hardwood forest.

Knoepp, J.D. and W.T. Swank. 1996. Long-term effects of commercial sawlog harvest on soil cation concentrations. Forest Ecology and Management. 93(1997):1-7.

ABSTRACT: There is increasing concern about the effects of nutrient removal associated with various forest harvesting practices on long-term site; productivity. We measured exchangeable soil cation concentration responses to a commercial clearcut sawlog harvest in mixed hardwoods on a 59-ha watershed in the southern Appalachians. Soils were sampled 17 months prior to, and periodically for 17 years after, harvest. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, and K, increased significantly in the 0-10-cm soil layer for 3 years following harvest compared to pretreatment levels. Concentrations of Mg and K were still significantly above pretreatment levels 17-20 years following harvest. Calcium concentrations did not change significantly at the 10-30 cm depth, but both Mg and K showed significantly higher concentrations in some post treatment years. Soils in the adjacent reference watershed showed no significant changes in soil cation concentrations over the same 17-year period. Results indicate that sawlog harvest using cable-yarding techniques on these sites does not adversely impact soil cation concentrations.

Keywords: forest management, soil chemistry, nutrient availability.

Mroz, G.D., M.F. Jurgensen, and D.J. Frederick. 1985. Soil nutrient changes following whole tree harvesting on three Northern Hardwood sites. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 49(6): 1552-1557.

ABSTRACT: Three northern hardwood stands were clearcut to evaluate the effect of whole tree harvesting on sites of varying quality. Stands were growing on sandy, out wash soils and had red maple (Acer rubrum L.) site indices of 15, 19, and 20 M and biomass values of 114,165, and 181 Mg ha-1. Harvesting did not alter extractable soil P levels significantly on any site. Forest floor weights decreased to similar values on all sites 1.5 yr after harvest. Nitrogen losses of over 1.3 Mg ha -1 occurred in the top meter of soil on all sites. This was attributed to the mixing of the forest floor with the surface mineral soil by the full tree skidding and the subsequent leaching of mineralized N. Soil exchangeable K decreased more than 1 Mg ha-1 on all sites. Changes in Ca and Mg were much smaller on the low and medium than on the high site. These losses from surface soil horizons are higher than reported previously for clearcutting northern hardwoods on till soils. The greatest impact of whole tree harvest on soil nutrients occurred on the better sites in this study rather than on the poor quality site.

Keywords: Whole tree, nutrient cycling, harvest impacts, forest floor, biomass harvesting.

Pennock, D.J. and C.van Kessel. 1997. Clear-cut forest harvest impacts on soil quality indicators in the mixed wood forest of Saskatchewan, Canada. Geoderma.
75: 13-32.

ABSTRACT: The concept of soil quality is relevant to a range of human-induced disturbances on soil; our objective was to examine the impact of clear-cutting on soil quality conditions in six Mixed wood (Populus tremuloides- Picea glauca) stands in Central Saskatchewan, Canada. Soil quality conditions at two short-term (1 to 5 years) and four medium-term (6 to 20 years) clear-cut sites were compared to eight mature Mixed wood sites. All sites had a similar, albeit complex, distribution of soil and parent sediments. No major differences were observed between the short-term clear-cut sites and the mature Mixed wood sites. At the medium-term sites, substantial losses of soil organic carbon (24%), soil nitrogen (27%), and LFH thickness (28%) were observed, along with decreases in the soil surface (O to 15 cm layer) of exchangeable calcium and magnesium (30%), soluble organic P (15%), and cation exchange capacity and base saturation(20%). The losses were much lower in the 15 to 45 cm layer of the soil. Overall, the levels of these soil components observed at the clear-cut sites were within the natural or undisturbed range as assessed at the mature Mixed wood sites; however the amounts of soil organic carbon and nitrogen at the clear-cut sites were lower than the natural range. Although the absolute levels of loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen were much lower than in typical agricultural landscapes, the long-term ecological significance of the losses in these forested landscapes remains a concern.

Keywords: boreal taiga and forest soils, forestry; soil degradation.

Ponder, F., D.E. Alley, D. Jordan, M.E. Swartz, and V.C. Hubbard. 1999. Impacts of harvest intensity and soil disturbance on early tree growth and earthworm populations in a Missouri Ozark forest. In: Proceedings of the 12th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. J.W. Stringer and D.L. Loftis, eds. Lexington, Kentucky. Feb.28-Mar.2. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Southern Research Station. General Technical Report. SRS-24. 121-127.

ABSTRACT: The long-term impact of increased removal of forest biomass and nutrients with increased harvest intensity on soil productivity is a general concern. In 1994, a long-term study was initiated in the Missouri Ozarks as part of the National Long-Term Soil Productivity (LTSP) study to study the effects of biomass removal and compaction on soil productivity. The study has three levels each of organic matter removal (boles only, whole tree, and whole tree plus forest floor) and soil compaction (none, moderate, and severe). This report presents 3-year preliminary results from the low and high organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments with and without weed control on survival and growth of planted northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), white oak (Quercus alba L.), and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) seedlings. Differences in seedling survival were affected by organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments. Trees with weed control were larger in diameter, taller, and had more diameter and height growth than trees without weed control. Organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments significantly affected the height and diameter growth of trees differently. Analysis of spring and fall samples of earthworm populations showed that soil compaction and time of sampling significantly influenced the number and biomass of earthworms.

Keywords: Oak, shortleaf, organic matter, whole tree, earthworms, compaction, growth.

Smith, W.N., P. Rochette, C. Monreal, R.L. Desjardins, E. Pattey, and A. Jaques. 1997. The rate of carbon change in agricultural soils in Canada at the landscape level. Canadian Journal of Soil science. 77(2): 219-229.

ABSTRACT: The Century model [a computer simulation of the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC)] was used to estimate the rate of SOC change in agricultural soils in Canada. The analysis was carded out on 180 Soil Landscapes of Canada (SLC) polygons, representing 15% of the SLC polygons within agricultural regions. The analysis was stratified into soil zones and into soil textural classes. For each sampled polygon, Century was run for 1 to 5 types of crop rotations under conventional-tillage as well as no-tillage, providing that no-till was used on at least 5% of the land. From the Century simulations, it was estimated that the overall rate of SOC loss from agricultural soils in Canada for1990 was 39.1 kg h -1 yr-1. This implies that 1.93 Mt of SOC (7.08 Mt of C02) was lost from agricultural soils in Canada. Compared to 1990, the SOC loss was estimated to have been greater by 11.9 kg ha-l yr-1 in 1980 and 9.1 kg ha-1 yr-1 in 1985. The lower loss in 1990 was primarily due to the incorporation of no-till practices and reduction of summer fallow in the mid 1980s. In 1990, at the provincial level, Alberta had the highest rate of SOC loss at 74.5 kg ha-1 yr-1 followed by Manitoba with 66.1 kg ha-1 yr-1. In Ontario, Quebec, and the Atlantic Provinces the average provincial rate of SOC loss was less than 35 kg ha-1 yr-1. Higher SOC loss rates were typically found in soils with coarser texture and greater native SOC content.

Keywords: Carbon dioxide, greenhouse gas, Century model.

Yanai, R.D. 1991. Soil solution phosphorus dynamics in a whole-tree-harvested Northern Hardwood Forest. Soil Science Society of America. 55(6):1746-1752.

ABSTRACT: Forest harvest drastically alters nutrient cycling, yet stream water and mineral-soil solutions typically show little change in P concentrations after forest disturbance. Changes in P availability and movement are more likely to be detected in forest-floor solutions, since P can be strongly absorbed in soil. Tension-free lysimeters were used to compare forest-floor and mineral-soil solution total-P concentrations in whole-tree-harvested and undisturbed forest sites for 2 yr after harvest in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. Mean total-P concentrations in solution in the forest floor (Oa horizon) were significantly higher in whole-tree-harvested sites (248 µg P L-1 ) thin in undisturbed forest sites (67 µg P L-1), presumably due to reduced plant uptake of P. Mean P concentrations in mineral-soil solution remained low after whole-tree harvest (32,g P L-1 in the Bh and 15 µg P L-1 in the Bs), consistent with the high P-sorption capacity of the mineral soil. Phosphorus flux in soil solution from the Oa to the B horizon, calculated from monthly mean P concentrations and monthly water flux simulated by a hydrologicmodel, was greater in whole-tree-harvested sites (1.0 kg P ha-1 yr-1) than in undisturbed forest sites (0.3 kg P ha-1 yr-1) in the first 2 yr after the disturbance. This redistribution of P from the forest floor to the mineral soil far exceeds stream-water export of dissolved P(0.02 kg P ha-1yr-1) but is small compared with forest-floor stores(85 kg P ha-1).

Keywords: nutrient cycling, forest harvest, whole-tree, stream water, soil, hydrology.

STREAM SEDIMENTATION AND WATER QUALITY

Brown A.V., Y.Aguilal, K.B.. Brown, and W.P. Fowler. 1997. Responses of benthic macro invertebrates in small intermittent streams to silvicultural practices. Hydrobiologia 347: 119-125.

ABSTRACT: We examined macro invertebrate communities in small (0. 1_1.0 M2) pools of intermittent streams (always containing some water but without perennial flow) with small watersheds (2-6 ha) subjected to five types of forest harvest to assess potential impacts of the different harvest methods. Buffer strips 10 m wide were left on each side of the streams. Each harvest treatment was coupled with a similar unharvested reference stand. An incomplete block design included three 0.05 m2 vacuum samples from each treatment paired with three from the adjacent references. There was a high degree of similarity among references for parameters other than taxonomic composition (e.g. macro invertebrate density, number of species, Shannon diversity, functional groups, etc.). Statistically significant differences were found between references and treatments and among harvest methods but the responses varied among response variables (density, Shannon-Weiner diversity, species composition), different species assemblages(all invertebrates, chironomids, Ephemeroptera-Plecoptera-Trichoptera [EPT], isopods), and functional group categories (shredders, collector-gatherers). We collected 56 taxa, 7-16 per site, with low community similarity (mean Jaccard's = 0. 18, mean Bray-Curtis percent dissimilarity = 8 1). The most severe harvest treatments resulted in the highest diversities of total invertebrates in these small spring pool communities.

Keywords: small intermittent streams, silvicultural methods, invertebrates, watershed, disturbance, forest.

Eaglin, G.S. and W.A. Hubert. 1993. Management Briefs: Effects of logging and roads on substrate and trout in streams of the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 13(4): 844-846.

ABSTRACT: We examined the influence of logging and road construction on substrate and standing stocks of trout (Saivelinus and Salmo) in 28 stream reaches in the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. The extent to which roads crossed watercourses (culvert density)within a drainage and the proportion of the drainage that was logged were positively correlated to both the amount of fine substrate and embeddedness. Trout standing stocks had a negative relation with the density of culverts. Erosion of soil from road surfaces, ditches, and disturbed areas adjacent to roads that subsequently is deposited in stream channels seems to be an important mechanism by which logging has affected stream habitat.

Keywords: logging, trout, road construction, drainage, erosion of soil, stream habitat.

Fowler, W. P. 1993. Woody debris dynamics in zero order streams of the Ouachita National Forest: Preliminary findings. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 182-185.

ABSTRACT: The importance of woody debris within zero order stream channels of the Ouachita National Forest is unclear. Basic processes of recruitment, occurrence and movement of woody debris are largely unexplored. The occurrence and abundance of woody debris dams may prove to be a useful indicator for aquatic macro invertebrate habitat. If so, woody debris may be used as an indirect biological indicator for the ephemeral portions of aquatic ecosystems. This study was conducted to map the location and estimate the biomass of woody debris in forested ephemeral channels. The effects of reproductive timber harvest methods on these debris dams are estimated by remeasurement of the location and biomass of the debris. Ratios of debris dams per 100m are determined and will be compared for untreated and treated drainages. Additionally, the basic processes of recruitment and movement are examined.

Keywords: woody debris, stream channel, drainage, timber harvest.

Golladay, S.W. and J.R. Webster. 1988. Effects of Clear-cut Logging on wood breakdown in Appalachian mountain streams. American Midland Naturalist. 119(1): 143-155.

ABSTRACT: Red oak (Quercus rubra) sticks, approximately 10-cm long and in three size classes (large, 3-cm diam, 22-55 g; medium, 1-2-cm, 12-22 g; small, <1-cm, 3-12 g) were placed at five sites in two second-order streams at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. One stream, Big Hurricane Branch, drains a watershed logged in 1976(WS 7); the other stream, Hugh White Creek, drains an uncut reference watershed(WS 14). Ten sticks of each size class were collected from each site at 6-month to 1-year intervals from September 1981 through November 1985. Calculated breakdown rates ranged from 0.107 to 0.281 y-1. Breakdown rates were significant different among size classes on both watersheds-smaller sticks lost mass faster than larger sticks. Breakdown rates of similar size sticks were significantly faster in Big Hurricane Branch, the disturbed stream, than in Hugh White Creek. Faster rates of wood breakdown in Big Hurricane Branch may be associated with higher stream NO3-N levels, greater stream channel instability and greater invertebrate abundance on sticks.
Keywords: Red oak, watershed, stream, breakdown rate.

Griffith, M.B. and Perry, S.A. 1991. Leaf pack processing in two Appalachian mountain streams draining catchments with different management histories. Hydrobiologia. 220(3): 247-254.

ABSTRACT: Rates of leaf litter processing and densities of macroinvertebrates in leaf packs were compared at two sites that differed in catchment logging history. The processing rate of leaves of sugar maple (Acer Saccharum Marsh.) was significantly faster in a stream draining a catchment that had been logged about 20 years ago than in one that had been undisturbed for 80 years. The faster processing rate was accompanied by significantly higher leaf pack densities of total macro invertebrates, shredders, and collector-gatherers. The higher densities of leaf pack macro invertebrates were apparently a result of differences in tree species between the two catchments. These differences resulted in greater inputs of fast-decomposing leaf litter to the stream draining the disturbed catchment and in smaller amounts of leaf litter remaining in the stream draining the disturbed catchment by spring when this study was conducted.

Keywords: leaf processing, decomposition, catchment disturbance, stream ecology, shredders.

Henderson, G.S. 1985. Nutrient dynamics in disturbed forests and associated influences on stream chemistry. In: Proceedings of Forestry and Water Quality: A Mid-South symposium. Little Rock, Arkansas. Edited by B.G. Blackmon, Department of Forest Resources, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. p55-65.

ABSTRACT: Recent theories on factors controlling nutrient dynamics in southern pine and hardwood stands are examined relative to dissolved nutrient discharge to streams and ground water. Nutrient discharges due to forest disturbance are universally low and this is undoubtedly coupled to slow nitrification rates. Riparian zones have been found to alter surface runoff chemistry and those with forested buffer strips appear to more effective in retaining dissolved nutrients.

Keywords: Hardwood, nutrient, discharge, disturbance, riparian zone, runoff, buffer strip.

Jacobson, R.B., A.L. Pugh. Riparian-vegetation controls on the spatial pattem of stream-channel instability, Little Piney Creek, Missouri. Water-Supply Paper, W 2494, p. 33

ABSTRACT: The role of riparian vegetation is assessed quantitatively by using a five-decade record of valley bottom vegetation and channel dynamics developed from historical aerial photography. A 12-kilometer reach of a typical Ozarks stream was mapped using aerial photographs from 1938, 1948, 1955, 1965, 1976, and1989; maps were then analyzed in a digital geographic information system. Analysis of sequential pairs of maps provides transition frequencies for assessing the relative areal rates at which riparian woodland, grassland, and cropland have been eroded or subjected to gravel aggradation. Results indicate that cropland and grassland have been no more likely to erode than woodland; cropland and grassland are slightly more susceptible to gravel deposition than woodland. These findings underscore the potential for complex responses of streams to a cumulative history of riparian and drainage-basin disturbances.

Keywords: Missouri little-piney creek, cropland, grassland, Ozark stream, riparian vegetation.

Miller, E.L., R.S. Beasley, and E.R. Lawson. 1988. Forest harvest and site preparation effects on stormflow and peak flow of ephemeral streams in the Ouachita Mountains. Journal of Environmental Quality. 17(2): 212-218.

ABSTRACT: Stormflow and peakflow response to three silvicultural treatments--clearcutting, selection cutting, and no disturbance (control) were compared in a replicated small watershed study in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. Watersheds were blocked according to aspect, location, soils, and geology in a randomized complete block design to test effects of treatments. Soils on the watersheds are shallow and were derived from sandstones and shale parent materials. Annual precipitation totals ranged from 72 to 142% of the long-term average (131.7 cm) during the study and a single rainstorm exceeding the 100-yr, 24-h event occurred the second year following harvest treatments. Overall, stormflow water yields did not increase significantly due to forest harvest treatments apparently because permeable soils and subsurface geology allowed deep seepage at the expense of stormflow. However, a treatment response was observed within one block and there was clearly a difference in stormflow response between blocks of watersheds. Annual stormflow as a percentage of precipitation ranged from 2 to 59% across watersheds and years. Overall peakflows did not increase significantly due to treatment, but a treatment response was observed

within one block of watersheds and there was a significant difference in peakflows between blocks. Treatment differences in stormflow and peakflow for the 100-yr event were not significant. Stormflow to precipitation ratios for this event ranged from 0.63 to 0.81.

Keywords: Hydrology, Water yield, Runoff, Clear-cutting, Selection cutting.

Perison, D., J. Phelps, C. Pavel, and R. Kellison. 1997. The effects of timber harvest in a South Carolina blackwater bottomland. Forest Ecology and Management. 90(2,3): 171-185.

ABSTRACT: This study was initiated on the South Fork Edisto River in South Carolina to investigate and compare the impacts of two different harvest methods (helicopter and rubber-tired skidders) on the ecological structure and function of a blackwater forested wetland. The two harvest treatments were chosen to represent a broad spectrum of potential impacts and were compared to an undisturbed site. Following harvest in 1991, functional responses in vegetative productivity, herpetofaunal populations, and soil and water quality were evaluated in 1992 and 1993. Herbaceous biomass was greater on the helicopter and skidders treatments than on the undisturbed control. In general, the biomass measured on the skidders treatment was not significantly different from the biomass measured on the helicopter treatment. Higher decomposition rates were noted in the harvested areas as compared to the control. This was mainly attributed to higher soil temperatures, which accelerated microbial activity. Increased decomposition rates may have been responsible for elevated levels of ammonium and organic carbon observed in ground water samples. A total of 29 species of herpetofauna (10 amphibians and 19 reptiles) were observed during the study. Salamanders were found more often in the undisturbed control. Reptiles were observed more frequently in the harvested area. Although herpetofaunal species composition was different between harvest and control, indices of diversity were similar.

Keywords: Blackwater, bottomland hardwoods, herpetofauna, function, harvest, biomass, biogeochemistry.

Reid, L.M. 1993. Research and cumulative watershed effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-141. Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 118 p.

ABSTRACT: The mandate for land managers to address cumulative watershed effects (CWES) requires that planners evaluate the potential impacts of their activities on multiple beneficial uses within the context of other coexisting activities in a watershed. Types of CWES vary with the types of land-use activities and their modes of interaction, but published studies illustrate both descriptive and predictive evaluations of many of these types. Successful evaluations have generally used geomorphological and ecological approaches based on the understanding of the processes involved. In contrast, most generalized "cookbook" analysis procedures are shown to be unable to assess accumulations of impacts through time, usually cannot evaluate the range of activities and uses that are necessary, and are rarely validated. A general approach to evaluation is proposed, and the types of information available for assessments are reviewed.

Keywords: watershed, cumulative impact, land-use planning, water quality

Stone, M.K. and J.B. Wallace. 1998. Long-term recovery of a mountain stream from clearcut logging: the effects of forest succession on benthic invertebrate community structure. Freshwater Biology. 39(6): 151-169.

ABSTRACT: 1. Changes in benthic invertebrate community structure following 16 years of forest succession after logging were examined by estimating benthic invertebrate abundance, biomass and secondary production in streams draining a forested reference and are covering clear-cut catchment. Benthic invertebrate abundance was three times higher, and invertebrate biomass and production were two times higher in the disturbed stream.
2. Comparison of invertebrate community abundance 1, 5 and 16 years after clear-cutting indicated that the proportion of scrapers had decreased, whereas shredders had increased. Functional group percentage similarity indicated that the invertebrate community in the disturbed stream 16 years after clear-cutting was more similar to the reference than to that found earlier in the disturbed stream.
3. The five indices calculated from data collected over the past 16 years, as well as the abundance, biomass and production data collected during this study, proved to be of differing value in assessing recovery of the disturbed stream from logging. Percent dominant taxon and EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera) taxon richness failed to show any initial differences between reference and disturbed streams, indicating that these indices may not be useful for measuring recovery from logging. The percentage Baetis and shredder--scraper indices showed significant differences only during the 1977 study and suggest recovery (no difference between reference and disturbed) by 1982. The North Carolina Biotic Index showed continued differences during 1982 in the riffle and depositional habitats and recovery by 1993. Total macro invertebrate abundance, biomass and production, as well as EPT abundance, indicated continued differences between the reference and disturbed streams in the 1993 study.

Keywords: forest succession, invertebrate, logging, biomass, stream, clearcut.
Webster, J.R., A.P. Covich, J.L. Tank, and T.V. Crockett. 1994. Retention of coarse organic particles in streams in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Journal of the North American Benthological Society. 13(2): 140-150.

ABSTRACT: Retention of coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) is essential to the efficient use of organic matter in streams supported by allochthonous inputs. To measure retention and to study factors affecting retention, we conducted both long-term and short-term experiments using small dowels as indices of stick retention and pieces of paper as indices of leaf retention. These experiments were done in streams at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. In general, we found that both types of CPOM were efficiently retained in all streams. Factors that affected CPOM transport and retention were storms, stream size, stream depth, and the abundance of retention structures in the streams. After initial transport, woody CPOM was transported only during storms. Retention was greater in smaller streams and in shallower stream sites. Rocks, boulders, and woody debris were the most important retention structures. In the stream draining a logged catchment, lower CPOM retention was associated with lower abundance of woody debris dams.

Keywords: stream, large particulate organic matter, wood, retention, debris dams.

Yoshimoto, A. and J.D. Brodie. 1994. Short- and long-term impacts of spatial restrictions on harvest scheduling with reference to riparian zone planning. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24(8): 1617-1628.

ABSTRACT: Owing to the significance of shade, wildlife habitat, soil stabilization, and water-filtering effects of stream side vegetation on the riparian zone, spatial restrictions are imposed on both public and private harvesting areas along the stream by state and federal agencies. Analysis of both short- and long-term impacts of the riparian zone spatial restrictions as well as spatial restrictions on harvest units is presented. The heuristic model called SSMART, for spatially constrained harvest scheduling problems, is used to solve the proposed problems. The Green River sub-basin on the Alsea Ranger District, Siuslaw National Forest, Oregon, is used for the analysis. Our computational experiments show that the marginal reduction of the total present net worth in dollars is about 6.2% per 100-foot (1 foot =0.305 m) width of the riparian management area, and about 6.7% for the average annual harvest flow. It is also shown that increasing the exclusion period to two or three periods could cause major reduction (25-40%) in both the total present net worth and the average annual harvest flow. The linear programming relaxation is revealed to provide a good approximation for impacts of the size of riparian management areas, while it cannot be used for examining impacts of the exclusion period.

Keywords: riparian zone, harvest, modeling.

WILDLIFE HABITAT

Cox, E.S., and J. Sullivan. 1995. Harvest scheduling with spatial wildlife constraints: An empirical examination of tradeoffs. Journal of Environmental. Management. 43(4): 333-348.

ABSTRACT: The impact of imposing spatial wildlife constraints on long-range timber management schedules is examined for a public forest in northern Virginia under varying levels of a wildlife habitat constraint. Linear programming-based timber management scheduling models are solved using (1) standard linear programming, (2) mixed-integer programming with computer-determined stand allocations, and (3) mixed-integer programming with predetermined stand allocations in order to determine the extent to which the failure to consider explicitly the spatial aspects of a forest management problem with wildlife concerns may lead to an overestimation of timber production capacity.
Findings indicate that present net value is overestimated by 1-8% to 21-41/o and annual sawtimber harvest volume is overestimated by 2-6% to 13-5% when the standard linear programming approach is used.

Keywords: linear programming, mixed-integer programming, harvest planning, area planning, allowable cut, wildlife constraints, forest fragmentation.

Dickson, J.G., F.R. Thompson III, R.N. Conner, and K.E. Franzreb. 1993. Effects of Silviculture on Nontropical migratory birds in Central and Southeastern Oak Pine Forest. Finch, D. M.; Stangel, P.W., eds. 1993. Status and Management of Nontropical Migratory Birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-229. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p.

ABSTRACT: Avian communities that are associated with forest habitat attributes are affected by silvicultural and other stand influences. Some species have specific habitat requirements, whereas others occupy a broad range of vegetative conditions. In general, bird species richness and density are positively related to stand foliage volume and diversity. Bird density and diversity are usually high in young brushy stands, decrease in dense pole stands as canopies close and shade out understories, and are highest in older stands with diverse foliage strata. Tree harvesting generally favors early successional species such as the Indigo Bunting, Prairie Warbler, and Yellow-breasted Chat, but some late successional forest species, such as the Black-and-white Warbler, persist with partial cutting. A few forest interior species, such as the Ovenbird, are less abundant in landscapes with cutting and forest fragmentation. Some species may have elevated nest parasitism and nest predation along forest edges. Recommendations for NTMB include: Maintain some large, old-growth stands; manage forest habitat for NTMB; employ special measures for endangered or sensitive species; implement long-term monitoring; and develop more complete information through research regarding NTMB, population viability, and their forest habitat.
Central hardwood, loblolly-shortleaf pine, longleaf-slash-pine, and bottomland hardwood forests dominate the central and southeastern United States. These forests are managed by both even-aged and uneven-aged silvicultural systems. We review the impacts of silvicultural practices on nontropical migratory birds (NTMB), in forests of this region. We approach this topic by (1) identifying general relationships between birds and forest habitats and landscapes in the region, (2) assessing effects of forest management on the NTMB in each ecosystem, and (3) conclude with some management strategies that extend across forest types.

Keywords: Central hardwood, even-aged, uneven-aged silviculture, nontropical migratory birds, NTMB, Avian, bird density.

Demaynadier, P.G. and M.L. Hunter, JR. 1998. Effects of Silvicultural edges on the distribution and abundance of amphibians in Maine. Conservation Biology. 12(2): 340-352.

ABSTRACT: Amphibian share several biological characteristics that may cause them to be sensitive to abrupt transitions in microhabitat and microclimate that occur across forest edges. To better understand the importance of edge effects on amphibians in a forested landscape, we sampled the distribution of populations along drift fences placed perpendicular to silvicultural edges of varying contrast in central Maine. Within the community of amphibians sampled (14 species), salamanders generally were more sensitive to even-aged harvesting and associated edge effects than were anurans, but forest habitat generalists and specialists were identified within both groups. We conservatively estimated the depth of edge effects at 25-35 m for a subset of management-sensitive species (Plethodon cinereus, Ambystoma maculatum, A laterale, and Rana sylvatica). An index of edge contrast, calculated using ambient light penetration levels, was valuable in predicting the magnitude of edge effects among sites that included silvicultural edges of different age and origin (old field plantations versus recent clearcuts). Some structural microhabitat variables relevant to forest management were identified as potentially limiting to amphibians near forest edges, including canopy cover, litter cover, and a measure of stump, snags, and their root channels. Our observations were consistent with the results of other work on biotic edge effects in the eastern United States and suggest that impacts from intense forest management practices extend beyond the boundaries of harvested stands.

Keywords: clearcut, amphibians, forest edges, forest management, silviculture, Maine.
Healy, W.M. 1991. Trends in management of oak forests for wild turkey. S.B. Laursen and J.F. DeBoe eds. Proceedings: The Oak Resource in the Upper Midwest Conference. Winona, MN. June 3-6. 45-55 pp.

ABSTRACT: Oaks play a "keystone" role in eastern wildlife communities. Many species of wildlife depend on acorns for food, and a few species are responsible for the long-distance dispersal of acorns. There is strong evidence that eastern oak forests are about to undergo a dramatic change. Oaks seem unable to replace themselves on average and good growing sites. The ultimate cause for the decline of oak appears to be a change in fire frequency. In the future, resource managers will have to pay more attention to the species composition of regenerating stands. More intensive silviculture, and perhaps some new techniques, will be needed to maintain oak ecosystems. The biggest impediments to managing oak ecosystems will involve forming a public consensus on the desired landscape condition, and selling public and professionals on new management activities.

Keywords: Oak, acorns, fire, reproduction, regeneration, wildlife, landscape, turkey.

Hughes, J.W. and T.J. Fahey. 1991. Availability, quality, and selection of browse by White-Tailed Deer after clearcutting. Forest Science. 37(1): 261-270.

ABSTRACT: We evaluated the effect of large-scale forest harvest on the production, nutritive quality, twig size, and use of four preferred species of browse by white-tailed deer in a spruce-fir forest in New Hampshire. Red maple produced the most new twigs (44-fold increase 3 years after harvest), and 99% of these were sprouts from stumps. Mountain maple and mountain ash twig production increased by factors of 3.5 and 1.9, respectively, and most twigs were borne on stems that survived the clearcutting. Most yellow birch (4-fold increase after 3 years) colonized from newly dispersed seed. For all species of browse except yellow birch, clearcutting resulted in (1) significantly larger, heavier twigs, and (2)significantly higher concentrations of protein and soluble carbohydrates. Deer removed a higher proportion of twigs from the clearcut than from the uncut forest. Mountain ash and mountain maple were the preferred species on both sites. Management implications are discussed.

Keywords: Clearcutting, Nutrition, Odocoileus virginianus, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, white-tailed deer, browse.

Kirkland, G. L. Jr. 1990. Patterns of initial small mammal community change after clearcutting of temperate North American forests. Oikos 59(3): 313-320.

ABSTRACT: A review of 21 published studies revealed a general pattern of positive initial responses of small mammals to conventional clearcutting of temperate North American forests. Four measures of small mammal abundance and diversity exhibited significant patterns of increase: overall relative abundance of small mammals, and abundances of microtine rodents, Clethrionomys gapperi. and Peromyscus spp. in coniferous forests. There were non-significant patterns of increase in seven other measures: species richness, diversity (Shannon index), population density, and abundances of soricids, sciurids, zapodids. and Peromyscus. Community evenness, and abundances of Tamias (Eutamias) and Peromyscus in deciduous forests decreased in a majority of studies. In general, responses of small mammals to clear-cutting were similar in deciduous and coniferous forests. The principal exception involved the abundance of Peromyscus, which evinced a significant pattern of increase in coniferous forests but tended to decline in abundance following clearcutting of deciduous forests. The potential influences of forest type, population of small mammals, single-sample surveys, and site characteristics to variation in patterns of community response are examined, along with the potential impact of whole-tree harvesting on the responses of small mammals to clearcutting.

Keywords: small mammals, clearcutting, whole-tree harvest, conifer, hardwood.
Petit, D.R., L.J. Petit, T.E. Martin, R.E. Thill, and J.F. Taulman. 1993. Breeding birds of late-rotation pine-hardwood stands: Community characteristics and similarity to other regional pine forest. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 103-116.

ABSTRACT: The relative abundances of bird species and the ecological characteristics of the overall avian community were quantified within 20 late-rotation pine-hardwood sites in the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas and Oklahoma during 1992 and 1993. In addition, similarities in species composition and guild representation were compared with those of forest types in other areas of the Southeastern United States to assess the possible extent of generalizations to be made from this Ecosystem Management research. A total of 55 bird species was recorded within survey plots during 1992 and 1993, but only 10 species accounted for more than 80 percent of all individuals detected. Pine warblers comprised approximately 40 percent of all individuals. Rank abundances of the 55 species were relatively consistent between years, especially for the most common species. Numbers of species and individuals detected during point count surveys were different between 1992 and 1993, although some of that discrepancy may be due to interobserver variation. No significant differences were detected in bird species richness, abundance, or diversity among the four geographic zones or among future harvesting treatments. Bird communities were dominated by species that nest and forage in the canopy. Similarity was relatively low between bird assemblages characterized on the Ouachita Mountain sites and assemblages in other studies. Representation of nesting and foraging guilds, however, was more closely aligned with guild structure found in other forests. In general, results from Ecosystem Management Research should be most applicable to loblolly-shortleaf pine and oak-hickory forest types in the Southeast.

Keywords: Ozark National Forest, ecosystem, bird, avian, harvest, shortleaf pine, oak-hickory.

Petit, L.J., D.R. Petit, T.E. Martin, R.E. Thill, and J.F. Taulman.1993. Predicting the effects of ecosystem management harvesting treatments on breeding birds in pine-hardwood forests. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 117-125.

ABSTRACT: Habitat relationships of birds are well known compared to those of other taxa. However, a major obstacle to developing rigorous management plans for birds is the collation and transfer of information from widely scattered technical and academic publications to a form that can be applied directly to the management of species. Recognizing this dilemma, Hamel (1992) produced a comprehensive summary of bird-habitat relationships for 23 forest types in the Southeastern United States. The explicit purpose of Hamel's summary was to aid land managers in projecting the impacts of silvicultural practices and management activities on bird populations. Ecosystem Management Research offered a unique opportunity to develop and test predictions derived from Hamel's bird-habitat matrices. Given its probable widespread use by wildlife biologists and land managers, Hamel's compilation needs its strengths and weaknesses identified for the future development of accurate predictive models of wildlife habitat in the Southeastern United States. Predictions of immediate changes in abundances of species and guilds occupying late-rotation pine-hardwood stands were developed in this paper for four harvesting treatments. Clearcutting and shelterwood harvesting were predicted to be more detrimental to the overall breeding bird community in late-rotation stands than were group or single-tree selection, although at least several species were predicted to increase in each silvicultural treatment. Bark, aerial, and canopy insectivores were predicted to exhibit more
substantial declines in populations than carnivores, shrub insectivores, and ground

foragers. In addition, species that place their nests in shrubs were predicted to undergo fewer declines than species that place nests in the canopy, tree cavities, and on the ground.

Keywords: birds, group, single-tree selection, clearcutting, shelterwood, rotation, wildlife.

Petranka, J.W., M.P. Brannon, M.E. Hopey, C.K. Smith. 1994. Effects of timber harvesting on low elevation populations of southern Appalachian salamanders. Forest Ecology and Management 67: 135-147.

ABSTRACT: We examined the effects of timber harvesting on southern Appalachian salamander communities in a managed watershed in Pisgah National Forest, western North Carolina, USA. Salamander abundance and species richness were lowest in very young stands and highest in stands more than 120 years old. Comparisons of recent clearcuts less than 5 years old with mature stands more than 80 years old suggest that terrestrial salamanders are completely eliminated or reduced to very low numbers when mature forests are clear cut. Comparisons of stand age categories further suggest that salamander abundance in local communities slowly increases for a century or more after stands are intensively harvested. We roughly estimate that logging during the last century by both the private and public sector has resulted in a 70% decline in salamander numbers within the study area as a whole. Implementation of an ecosystem- management strategy which reverses the current trend of having landscapes dominated by early and mid-successional forests would help restore depleted populations to levels where salamanders better fulfill their ecological roles as forest-floor insectivores. Other management techniques that would benefit salamanders include leaving buffers along headwater streams, and using harvesting techniques which assure that the basic structure and function of forests remain intact following timbering operations.

Keywords: Biodiversity, clearcutting, landscape management, Plethodontidae.

Pfannmuller, L.A. 1991. Significance of Oaks and oak forest communities for nongame wildlife. S.B. Laursen and J.F. DeBoe, eds. Proceedings: Oak Resource in the Upper Midwest, Implications for Management. Winona, Minnesota. June 3-6. 56-64 pp.

ABSTRACT: The important value of oaks as a source of food and cover for nongame wildlife is reviewed. The equally important benefit that nongame species provide to oaks is also discussed. Vertebrate inventories of oak forest communities in the Upper Midwest, however, are limited. Data from a few sources are used to identify some common species.
Keywords: oak, nongame, wildlife, Midwest.

Robinson, S.K., F.R. Thompson III, T.M. Donovan, D.R. Whitehead, and J.Faaborg. 1995. Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science. 267: 1987-1990.

ABSTRACT: Forest fragmentation, the disruption in the continuity of forest habitat, is hypothesized to be a major cause of population decline for some species of forest birds because fragmentation reduces nesting (reproductive) success. Nest predation and parasitism by cowbirds increased with forest fragmentation in nine Midwestern (United States) landscapes that varied from 6 to 95 percent forest cover within a 1 0-kilometer radius of the study areas. Observed reproductive rates were low enough for some species in the most fragmented landscapes to suggest that their populations are sinks that depend for perpetuation on immigration from reproductive source populations in landscapes with more extensive forest cover. Conservation strategies should consider preservation and restoration of large, unfragmented "core" areas in each region.

Keywords: Midwestern region, forest fragmentation, birds, nesting, cowbirds.

Root, B.G., F.R. Thompson III, D.E. Figert, and E.K. Fritzell. 1990. Peromyscus leucopus response to clearcutting in a Missouri oak-hickory forest. Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science 24: 43-48.

ABSTRACT: We studied the response of a Peromyscus leucopus population to clearcutting in an oak-hickory forest in central Missouri from 1982-88. We captured and released 291 P. leucopus at two study sites - 79 before clearcutting began, 143 up to six years following clearcutting, and 69 in uncut control areas. Population trends were similar between clearcut and control areas, but clearcuts generally had greater numbers of P. leucopus. Clearcutting appeared to have little effect on overall population fluctuations.

Keywords: Clearcutting, minimum number alive, Missouri, oak-hickory, Peromyscus leucopus.

Suarez, A.V., K.S. Pfennig, and S.K. Robinson. 1997. Nesting success of a disturbance-dependent songbird on different kinds of edges. Conservation Biology.
11(4): 928-935.

ABSTRACT: We compared the nesting success of a disturbance-dependent species, the Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea), on different kinds of habitat edges in five sites (225 total nests) in southern Illinois from 1989 to1993. Nest predation rates along agricultural and abrupt, permanent edges (eg., wildlife openings, camp-grounds) were nearly twice as high as rates along more gradual edges where plant succession was allowed to occur (eg, treefalls, streamsides, gaps created by selective logging). Levels of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothms ater) varied significantly among sites and years, but not among edge types. Clutch sizes, however, were significantly smaller at agricultural edges where nest predation rates were also higher, which suggests either decreased food availability or a population dominated by younger and/or lower-quality (poor condition) birds. The results of this study illustrate the need to reevaluate management practices (eg., wildlife openings) that are designed to promote populations of disturbance-dependent wildlife.

Keywords: nesting, disturbance, Indigo Bunting, edge, habitat, predation, cowbird.

Tappe, P.A., R.E Thill, J.J. Krystofik, and G.A. Heidt. 1993. Small mammal communities of mature pine-hardwood stands in the Ouachita Mountains. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 74-81.

ABSTRACT: A study was conducted on the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas to evaluate the effects of alternative pine-hardwood reproduction cutting methods on small mammal abundance and diversity. Pretreatment characteristics of small mammal communities on 20 late-rotation mixed pine-hardwood stands in four physiographic zones of the Ouachita Mountain region of Arkansas are presented. Each physiographic zone (block) contained one replication of five treatments (four future treatments and an untreated control). The most commonly captured small mammal species were Peromyscus spp., Blarina carolinensis, and Ochrotomys nuttalli. Capture success varied between years but most likely reflected changes in probabilities of capture of individual animals and not fluctuations in community composition. Small mammal species richness, diversity, evenness, and relative abundance did not differ between physiographic zones or future treatments.

Keywords: Ouachita, Ozark National Forest, Arkansas, small mammal, pine-hardwood.

Thompson, F.R, III, Fritzell, E.K. 1990. Bird densities and diversity in clearcut and mature oak-hickory forest. Res. Pap. NC-293. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes nongame bird densities and diversity in a central Missouri oak-hickory forest 1 year before and 3 years after portions were clearcut. Discusses changes in species density and diversity and their management implications.

KEYWORDS: Breeding birds, clearcutting, diversity, Missouri, oak-hickory forest, population densities.

Thompson, F.R., III, W.D. Dijak, T.G. Kulowiec, and D.A. Hamilton. Breeding bird populations in Missouri Ozark Forests with and without clearcutting. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 56(1): 23-30.

ABSTRACT: Concern has arisen that forest management practices that create edge (such as clearcutting) are contributing to regional declines in neotropical migrant birds that inhabit forest interiors. Consequently, we studied breeding bird populations in an extensively forested region of southern Missouri to determine if the numbers of breeding birds differed between areas (n = 9) managed by the clearcutting method (CCM), and areas (n = 9) of mature forest with no recent timber harvest or other disturbances (NOHVST). Three forest interior migrants had lower (P < 0.06) mean densities on CCM sites than NOHVST sites; 3 had greater (F< 0.03) densities on CCM sites; and densities of 3 others did not differ (P > 0.40) between treatments. All early successional migrants had greater (P < 0.01) densities on CCM sites. Numbers of 2 avian nest predator and a brood parasite did not differ (P > 0.20) on CCM and NOHVST sites. Densities of 9 species differed (P < 0.10) among regeneration, sapling, and pole-sawtimber habitats on CCM sites. While clearcutting reduced numbers of forest interior birds that were dependent on mature forest habitats, other forest interior species made extensive use of early and mid-successional even-aged stands and occurred in greater numbers on CCM sites.

Keywords: neotropical birds, brood parasite, clearcutting, forest interior birds, density, Missouri.

Thompson, F.R., III, J.R. Probst, and M.G. Raphael. 1995. Impacts of Silviculture: Overview and management recommendations. Ecology and Management of Neotropical Migratory Birds. Eds. T.E. Martin and D.M. Finch. Oxford Press. 201-219.

ABSTRACT: Recent declines in population sizes of Neotropical migratory birds (NTMBS) have been attributed to problems on the breeding grounds as well as nonbreeding areas (Hutto1988, Robbins et al. 1989a, Askins et al. 1990,Wilcove and Robinson 1990). Habitat loss and fragmentation, and the resultant area and edge-related decreases in reproductive success, are at least partially responsible for local declines or extirpations (see Faaborg et al., Chapter 13, this volume, Freemark et al., Chapter 14, this volume, for reviews). Silvicultural practices alter landscape structure, forest age and structure, and create edges, causing concern for the impacts of these practices on NTMBs. This concern is often greater when timber is harvested on public forest lands because they are some of the least fragmented forests remaining in parts of North America (Wilcove 1988). Much research and management effort have been directed at the impacts of silviculture practices on forest songbirds, partly evident by a series of regional workshops on management of forest birds from 1975 to1980 (Smith 1975, DeGraaf 1978, 1979, 1980). However, most research on silviculture and its impact on birds has occurred at the stand or habitat level, and only occasionally are large-scale inferences made. Researchers and managers now are realizing they not only must be concerned with the impacts of silvicultural practices at the forest-stand level but also with the regional and landscape context of a stand, the cumulative and landscape level effects of management practices, and species interactions such as brood parasitism and predation.
We review common silvicultural systems used in North America and their impacts on forest-dwelling NTMBS. We begin with a brief review of landscape and habitat factors that affect breeding forest birds, then review some basic concepts of silviculture and the potential impacts -of these systems with emphasis on harvest and regeneration methods. Other forest practices and regional practices arc addressed in this volume by Rotenberry et al. (Chapter 3), Dickson et al.(Chapter 9), Freemark et al. (Chapter 14), and Hcjl et al. (Chapter 8). We approach this topic from a regional-landscape scale to a stand-habitat scale, rather than the traditional stand-level approach.

Keywords: silviculture, neotropical migratory birds ( NTMB ), stand, forest.

Thompson, Frank R., III; Dessecker, Daniel R. 1997. Management of early-successional communities in central hardwood forests: with special emphasis on the ecology and management of oaks, ruffed grouse, and forest songbirds. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC- 195. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 33 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes the history, ecology, and silviculture of central hardwood forests and the status and ecology of early-successional forest song-birds and ruffed grouse. Concludes with management guidelines for early-successional communities in central hardwood forests.

Keywords: Early-successional forest, ruffed grouse, songbirds, wildlife habitat, central hardwoods, silviculture, oaks.

Titus, R. 1983. Management of snags and den trees in Missouri-a process. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report. RM-99. Proceedings: Snag Habitat Management. 51-59.

ABSTRACT: The Missouri Department of Conservation and Mark Twain National Forest have been reviewing and refining standards and guides for managing wildlife habitat. An important part of this effort has been to more clearly define the biological basis for dens and snags and to develop management guidelines. A committee was assigned to review available literature on 89 species of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles known to require snags and/or den trees to meet their life history requisites in Missouri. Data on these species such as territory size, maximum populations/100acres, and den tree characteristics such as diameter at breast height, cavity height, and number of dens per acre required for maximum populations were compiled. The species were then segregated by their use of broad habitat types which were identified as Forest Interior, Semi-open/Open Land, and Wooded Watercourses, referred to as Land Use Patterns (LUPS). Biological requirements were established for each major land use pattern and management techniques recommended for even-age and uneven-age silvicultural systems.

Keywords: snag, den, habitat type, bird, mammal, amphibian, reptile, wildlife, Missouri.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI THESES
Forestry Department Theses

Note: These theses are on file in the office of the Forestry Department, Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Room 203, Columbia, MO 65211.

Briggs, J.I. 1980. Effects of timber type conversion upon song bird populations in the southeast Missouri Ozarks. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 87p.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the impacts of timber type conversion (conversion due to the removal of hardwood species for more favorable pine production) on bird density and composition. The objectives were to compare seasonal densities, composition, and fluctuations of bird populations within three forest types (pine, oak, and pine-oak) and determine the relationships of seasonal bird population characteristics to each forest type studies. The pine, pine-oak, and oak forest types have different bird community compositions. A "trade-off" is the result of conversion practices because each forest type supports and provides habitat for some bird species that are not present in the other forest types. The bird population is not "devastated" during conversion of hardwood stands to pine stands but it changes in composition to that more typical of an earlier successional stage. If bird species found only in the oak stands are to be retained in the local bird community, portions of the oak forest type must be maintained.

Keywords: bird populations, forest type, forest conversion, silvicultural impacts, timber type conversion, bird species richness, guild densities, hole nesters, neo-tropical migrants.

Dubois, M.R. 1984. The silvicultural and economic feasibility of thinning 20- and 40-year-old black oak stands in the Missouri Ozarks. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 173p.

ABSTRACT: Silvicultural and economic analyses of thinning black oak stands were conducted on the Sinkin Experimental Forest and other areas in southeastern Missouri. Data from 72, one-half acre experimental plots that were established in 1961 and 1962 in 20- and 40-year old black oak stands were used in the analysis. Thinning reduced stand density on these plots to various specified levels at the beginning of the study and irregular time intervals thereafter. Sample measurements monitoring growth of individual trees were conducted initially and as many as seven times over a 20-year period. Results of multiple linear regression analysis indicate that larger diameter trees in black oak stands have greater periodic annual increment (PAI) following thinning, regardless of stand age, stand density or site quality. These larger trees were able to sustain higher rates of PAI diameter growth following for longer periods as compared to smaller trees. The greatest PAI's occurred at low-levels of stocking for all thinning regimes examined. Minimum differentials in PAI's attributable to stand density occurred between stockings of 50 and 80 percent for thinned 22-year old stand between 70 and 90 percent for thinned 40-year old stands. Periodic annual increments were maintained at a higher level for longer periods following thinning in 40-year old stands on a site index 70 as compared to a site index 60. Results from the economic analysis indicate no-thinning management alternatives with 60-year rotations produced the largest present net worth (PNW's) at 7.125 percent real discount rate for 20- and 40-year old stands on site indexes 60 and 70 if there are no markets for cordwood from thinnings. Where there are markets for cordwood for thinnings, the largest PNW's for 20- and 40-year old stands on sites 60 and 70 were attained with management alternatives in which thinning is not initiated until age 40. Thinning to residual stand densities of 70 and 80 percent stocking on 10-year intervals to a rotation age 60 years produced the largest PNW's.

Keywords: thinning, forest economics, forestry finance, present net worth, growth rate, sensitivity analyses.

Dwyer, J.P. 1988. Evaluation of the long-term silvicultural and economic effects of thinning and pruning treatments on a scarlet and black oak timber stand in southeastern Missouri. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Missouri-Columbia. 255p.

ABSTRACT: This study reports on the long-term silvicultural and economic effects of thinning and pruning on scarlet and black oak crop trees that had been initially thinned in 1953 on the University State Forest, near Lake Wappapello, MO. A random sample of crop trees were harvested, scaled, and sawn into lumber products. The results of these physical production outputs were combined with the economic inputs to determine optimal management regimes for the sustained production of scarlet and black oak timber stands in the Missouri Ozarks. Statistical analyses indicated no significant differences in grade or value of lumber produced from trees due to pruning, or to the thinning-pruning interaction. However, thinning was found to have a significant effect on the quantity, grade, and value of lumber produced at the individual tree and stand level. The value of lumber produced from scarlet oak crop trees significantly increased as thinning level intensified. At more intense thinning levels, the average lumber value from scarlet oak crop trees was more than twice the value of untreated trees. The economic analysis which was applied to the five thinning alternatives showed that the moderate thinning treatment had the highest net present worth ($506.74 per acre). Linear programming was used to explore the interactive effects of timing, frequency, and intensity of thinning upon the development of four forest stands over time. From this evaluation an optimum management regime for scarlet and black oak crop trees was developed.

Keywords, management regimes, linear programming, thinning, pruning, financial analysis, tree quality, log quality, lumber quality, economic analysis.

Fairweather, J.R. 1979. Types of forest landowners in the Missouri eastern Ozarks.
Unpublished MA thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 114p.

ABSTRACT: The research reported in this thesis looks at the different attitudes held by landowners in the Eastern Ozarks area, in particular the purpose is to describe the precise nature of these different attitudes by describing different landowner types and how their attitudes relate to management practice. The Q-method was used to randomly sample 66 subjects in a 14-county area of the Eastern Ozarks. Three landowner types were identified, The Concerned Ecologist, The Dedicated Farmer, and The Practical Forester. The Concerned Ecologist is concerned about the preservation and conservation of forest land and has a long time perspective regarding its future. The Dedicated Farmer is characterized by an ever-present business attitude combined with a powerful interest in cattle-farming. The Practical Forester is essentially a forester with a primary goal of continued production and harvesting of timber. To encourage the Concerned Ecologist to harvest timber and manage for this goal, requires the valid information on the effect of these operations on wildlife and amenity values, be made available. The Dedicated Farmer responds well to the economic aspect of forestry management so information on its profitability will be of interest to him/her. The Practical Forester needs encouragement to implement the correct management practices and keep up-to-date.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy.

Ficklin, R.L. 1997. Reduction of timber production externalities by using an alternative harvesting technique to minimize soil and stand damage. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 145p.

ABSTRACT: In this project the use of an alternative skidding system in the Missouri Ozarks was examined to test the hypothesis that both tree damage and soil disturbance can by reduced by implementing alternative harvesting systems. If alternative harvesting practices are shown to reduce the negative externalities associated with residual tree damage and soil disturbance from timber production, then it should be possible to increase the overall level of timber production that maximizes net social benefit in a multiple-use forest management system. Moreover, in this project changes in the concentration and quantity of soil organic carbon following perturbation by timber harvesting were examined. The results of this investigation support the use of both uneven-aged regeneration systems and alternative harvesting techniques for reducing timber production externalities. The alternative harvesting technique (mule) reduced the extent and severity of residual tree damage (8.0% of trees damaged using mules compared to 23.5% for the rubber-tired skidders). Furthermore, the extent of soil disturbance was also reduced by two-thirds with the alternative harvesting technique, so compaction from skidding was limited to only three percent of the total land area. In contrast to previous investigations of soil carbon following clearcuts, no decrease in soil organic carbon was observed following selection cutting.

Keywords: skidding impacts, soil organic carbon, soil disturbance, residual stand damage, timber production externalities, forest disturbance.

Hansen, W.F. 1975. Water quantity and quality relationships on four experimental watersheds in southeast Missouri. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 128p.

ABSTRACT: This study includes research during part of the pretreatment or calibration period of four gaged, headwater catchments in the Missouri Ozarks. The study objectives are to compare water yield and quality on the research watersheds at the University Forest, to discuss some of the factors which appear to influence stream discharge and nutrient concentrations, and to provide benchmark information on stream water quality from headwater watersheds in the Ozarks. On the University Forest watersheds, stream water quality and water yield are highly correlated on watersheds 1, 2, and 3. Because future treatment may increase base flows and alter water quality from these additions, extreme care will have to be taken in the use of these watersheds in a paired watershed study. It may be difficult to tell which additions are the result of the watershed treatment. It is fortunate that some of the major nutrients that concern watershed managers are not radically influences by subsurface flows. Future studies should focus on throughfall, litter, leachate and groundwater inputs as possibly the major factors in the observed variability in stream water quality from undisturbed forested areas.

Keywords: nutrient flux, stream flow runoff, water quality, paired watersheds, precipitation.

Herbeck, L.A. 1998. Ecological interactions of plethodontid salamanders and vegetation in Missouri Ozark Forests. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 78p.

ABSTRACT: An examination of the management impacts on plethodontid salamander abundance in oak-pine and oak-hickory forest ecosystems in the southeastern Ozarks of Missouri. Salamander abundance was measured in regenerating forests less than five years old, second growth forests 70-80 years old, and old-growth forests greater than 120 years old. Salamander density was lowest in newly regenerated stands and highest in stands more than 120 years old. Comparisons of regenerating forests less than five years old with mature stands more than 70 years old suggest that terrestrial salamanders are reduced to very low numbers when mature forests are intensively harvested. Stand age comparisons further suggest that salamander abundance slowly increases over time after stands are regenerated. Using Poisson regression, models were constructed based on data collected to describe the relationship between plethodontid salamanders and vegetation structure within each forest structural age. Several habitat variables were significantly correlated (Pearson's R absolute value > 0.50) but no habitat variables were highly correlated with Salamander density.

Keywords: salamanders forest structure, habitat loss, forest disturbance.

Kim, B.K. 1973. Constraints on timber production to accommodate wildlife habitat. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Missouri-Columbia. 117p.

ABSTRACT: A shortage of timber supply is anticipated. Increasing demand for both hunting and non-consumptive enjoyment of wildlife also is evident. To increase overall efficiency in forest production, land managers must coordinate timber production and wildlife habitat improvement. This study estimates the sacrifice necessitated in timber production to accommodate wildlife habitat improvement and evaluates silvicultural treatments on the Carman Springs Wildlife Refuge Management Area in Missouri. By modifying treatments of timber stands and their timing, the distribution of timber stand size classes by area was significantly improved so that the diversity of habitat essential to wildlife is enhanced. No substantial losses were experienced in the total volume of timber cut in order to improve wildlife habitat, but some timber cutting was delayed two to three decades. Production of forage was increased, but mast production decreased. Coordination of wildlife habitat improvement with timber management appears more favorable than a dominant land use for timber production.

Keywords: integration of timber production with wildlife habitat, rate of return, long-term management strategies, economic impact of wildlife habitat improvement.

Lewis, B.J. 1979. Private non-industrial forest landowners in the Missouri Ozarks: A Q-methodological establishment of types. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 251p.

ABSTRACT: Private non-industrial forest landowners of diverse backgrounds and interests performed a Q-sort in which they expressed attitudes concerning a variety of forest management objectives. A Q-factor analysis identified four attitudinal types of private forest landowners. Two of the four types were distinctly oriented towards long-term timber management, while another type placed strong emphasis on the preservation of the forest environment. A fourth landowner type was primarily concerned with cattle operations, with forest land being of secondary importance to this individual. For the Timber Conservationist, any program of public forestry assistance must emphasize the overall improvement in the quality of the forest land which can result form the sustained harvesting of timber crops. For the Range Pragmatist, the initial function of an assistance program should be informative in nature. Incentives should appeal to the practical nature of harvesting as a business venture- there is money in trees and as long as such a potential exits, it would be worthwhile for the landowner to take advantage of the supplementary source of income. The Timber Agriculturalist forest landowner would be the most receptive among all types to the traditional production-oriented approach of public forestry assistance programs.
For the Forest Environmentalist the primary emphasis of an assistance program must involve an effective demonstration that timber harvesting is compatible with a healthy and aesthetically pleasing forest environment.

Keywords: non-industrial private forest landowner, Q-methodology, government assistance programs, landowner survey, forest management objectives

Loveless, J.P. 1975. Breeding bird populations of forest edges in Central Missouri. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 56p.

ABSTRACT: This study was designed to census the breeding birds of forest edges in Central Missouri, to examine the characteristics of these edge habitats, and discuss the effects of these characteristics on breeding bird diversity. Three forest opening study areas, a grazed pasture and two old fields, were located on the Cedar Creek Purchase Unit of the National Forests in Missouri. Bird species diversity increases as vegetation structural diversity increases. To promote maximum bird species diversity maintain early and middle seral stages, as well as leave 20-30% old growth trees along the edges. In this study intensive grazing of cool season grasses during the warmest months of the year have contributed to severe pasture degradation. To remedy this, change the grazing scheme, and establish, maintain, and graze native prairie grasses.

Keywords: bird populations, forest edges, bird species diversity, cluster analysis, avifauna, bird species frequency.

Marty, T.D. 1983. An extension of nonindustrial private forest landowner topologies: A Wisconsin study. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 230p.

ABSTRACT: This study was conducted in north central Wisconsin to determine various characteristics of nonindustrial private forest owner types relevant for public-assistance policy development. Three distinct owner types using Q-methodology. A previously developed landowner decision-making model was expanded and refined to more fully explain the process of management practice adoption. The model illustrates the decision steps leading to selection of a management scheme and the influence of internal and external forces in that decision. Relevant public policy implications of study findings were examined. The Resource Conservationist type owners control about one-third of the forest land and are the most timber production oriented. Forest Recreationist owners control about 40 percent of the forest land and own the land primarily for recreational purposes. Forest Utilitarian owners are interested in short-term utilization of the land and control about one-fifth of the forest land. A comparison of characteristics of Wisconsin and Missouri owner types showed little difference between respective types in term of the level of forest management and timber harvesting activity in of differences in forest industry. Based upon this information relevant public policy implications were examined. It was recommended that a mix of policies be maintained, including relatively general, broad-based programs such as extension activities, and also more landowner intensive programs such as cost-sharing and Cooperative Forest Management. In Missouri, four landowner types were found: Timber Agriculturalist, Timber Conservationist, Forest Environmentalist and Range Pragmatist. The Timber Agriculturalist identified timber production as the number one objective for land ownership 78% of the time. Whereas, the Range Pragmatist identified timber production only 23% of the time. The average forested tract for the Timber Agriculturalist, Timber Conservationist, Forest Environmentalist and Range Pragmatist is 374, 108, 79 and 93 acres, respectively.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy.

Morris, M.F. 1984. Unit hydrographs and synthetic unit hydrographs for two experimental Ozark watersheds. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 108p.

ABSTRACT: This project adapted unit hydrograph theory to forest hydrology, using an extension of the paired-basin technique. The study examined nine years of rainfall and runoff data from two watersheds at University State Forest in southeast Missouri. The objectives of this study were to; 1) determine the magnitude, rand and variability of major hydrograph parameters; 2) develop representative unit hydrographs for the two watersheds; and 3) quantify certain hydrologic relationships among the unit hydrograph parameters on each watershed and between the two watersheds. Analysis of the major hydrograph parameters revealed the following: 1) The return periods of the storms selected were four years or less; 2) intensities of the storms ranged from .53cm/hr. to 7.21 cm/hr.; 3) of all the parameters analyzed for variability, the base time, Tb, had the smallest coefficient of variation; 4) peak discharge, Qp, had the largest coefficient of variation, as well as the largest standard error of the mean; 5) the duration of effective rainfall, Tr, varied from .0.08 hr. to 2.25 hrs.; 6) the time to peak, Tp, ranged from 0.42 hrs. to 3.0 hrs. on watershed 1 and 0.92 hrs to 4.33 hrs. on watershed 2.; 7) the lag time, Tlag, ranged from 0.29 hr. to 2.17 hrs on watershed 1 and 0.45 hr. to 3.50 hrs on watershed 2; and 8) the stormflow volume, V, ranged 0.10 cm. to 1.12 cm. on watershed 1 and from 0.13 cm. to 1.21 cm. on watershed 2. Both watershed were forested.

Keywords: forest hydrology, runoff, watershed, stormflow.

Othic, S.T. 1981. Conversion of forest land in the Missouri Ozark region. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 90p.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the quality and productivity of forest land converted to other land uses (1.4 million acres between 1959 and 1972), and to estimate the effect of conversion on future timber supplies. Since the southwestern and Eastern Ozark Forest Survey Units are quite important to Missouri's timber industry, a comparative study between the two units was made to more precisely identify those areas where land conversion will have an appreciable influence on timber supplies. In addition, an analysis of the quality of forest land which has been converted to pasture was conducted. The review of pre-conversion inventory data disclosed that, in general, the forest stands in both Survey Units were of marginal commercial value because of poor tree form, low stocking rates and low merchantable volume. The effect on future forest inventories was to decrease future inventory volumes. The exact estimate of increase, had conversion not taken place, can be misleading because of site quality differences between the different tracts. Bulldozing of timber stands was the most widely used conversion method and the only technique resulting in complete elimination of the hardwood overstory. The major reason for land conversion was the establishment of fescue pastures. Proper range management practices were practically non-existent within both survey units in that the utilization of cool and warm season grasses coupled with the needed fencing and rotation systems to less grazing pressures were found in only two instances. The observed result was that of established monocultures (Fescue spp.) and severe overgrazing. Re-investigation of the 30 study plots in 1978 showed that of the 15 tracts classified as wooded pasture in 1972 only 6 (40 percent) remained in the same category in 1978. Clearly a major shift has occurred in management objectives, since rather than being allowed to revert to forest, wooded pastures are being diverted to more intensive grazing uses. Rather than fescue, more consideration should be given to the use native warm season grasses because they require less maintenance, are well suited for rotation systems when combined with cool season grasses, and help to offset wildlife habitat losses.

Keywords: habitat loss, land conversion, commercial forest land.

Palmer, B.D. 1995. A regional forest resource attitude assessment - Urban versus rural Missourians. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 224p.

ABSTRACT: A statewide attitude survey conducted during February and March, 1993, the purpose of which was to determine the values and attitudes of Missouri residents toward forest resources. More specifically, to determine the public values associated with forest resources in Missouri and how best to influence public attitudes as they relate to the Missouri Department of Conservation's Forestry Division mission. Missourians hold diverse opinions and only rarely was there accord among regions of the state. In this survey rural residents were found to be more environmentally concerned and more satisfied by amenities from the forest while urban residents favored more commodity production activities. Virtually all respondents considered themselves as sympathetic to environmental causes. Both urban and rural respondents placed a high value on forest amenities, and both groups believed it is necessary to produce goods from the forest to supply our needs. However, the difference in opinion between rural and urban respondents is statistically significant. Confusion over Forestry Division responsibilities exists for both urban and rural respondents. The most important benefit of forest land in general, as perceived by those surveyed, is oxygen production, followed by wildlife habitat, water quality, scenic beauty, recreation, lumber production and a place to earn a living. The most important benefits from public forest land are clean streams, fish and wildlife habitat, plant and animal diversity, recreation, timber production and easy access to forest land. Although lumber production ranks low, this does not mean forests cannot, or should not, be harvested. Carefully cutting trees may be a way to provide benefits and reach objectives, and timber sale proceeds may help "pay the way".

Keywords: landowner survey, attitude survey, public attitudes.

Trammel, C.E. 1991. Management of the Wurdack Farm timber land. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 161p.

ABSTRACT: The Wurdack Farm is located in the Eastern Ozark Region of Southern Missouri. Being comprised of narrow, stony ridges suitable for growing timber and valleys suitable for forage crops, it is typical of the many of the farms in the region. Timber production from oak-hickory forests can supplement farm income from other sources. This study compared the economic returns of even (clearcutting) versus uneven-aged (single-tree) management. Either management method can yield suitable returns to management. This evaluation found that either even-age management with provisions for natural regeneration or uneven-age management using a 20-year harvest cycle with provisions for natural regeneration will yield the highest returns to management at real discount rates between 2.0 and 7.0 percent and stumpage prices between $80.00 and $100.00 per thousand board feet (mbf).

Keywords: forest economics, forestry finance, clearcutting, single-tree, net present worth, management regimes, economic analysis.

Trokey, C.B. 1981. An analysis of timber management potentials for private nonindustrial forest landowners. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 122p.

ABSTRACT: A random survey of nonindustrial private forest landowners was conducted in the Eastern Ozarks Forest Survey Unit of Missouri to determine the proportions within the population of previously identified landowner types and to describe forest management characteristics. Although the Timber Agriculturalists comprise the smallest number of landowners, they control the largest proportion of commercial forest land, have sold the most timber, and express interest in future timber sales. Timber Conservationists do not own their timberland solely for timber harvest, but would become better timber managers with the proper assistance program approach. Approximately two-thirds of the commercial forest land in the eastern Ozarks is controlled by these two types. The Forest Environmentalists and Range Pragmatists may become timber producers with appropriate type of assistance, although their potential for timber management is less promising than for the other two landowner types. Suggestions for public assistance programs were made based on the individual needs of the landowner types. Timber presently being managed for timber harvests represents 59 percent of the forest land in the study area. With more effective government programs, an additional 21 percent of the forest land and timber volume would be available for future harvest. An optimistic figure for available timber supply is 37,585 acres which is controlled by the four landowner types and which is currently under forest management and available for future harvest.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy, landowner objectives, landowner characteristics.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
Fisheries and Wildlife Department Theses

Note: These theses are on file in the office of the Fisheries and Wildlife Department, Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Room 303, Columbia, MO 65211.

Annand, E.M. 1995. Habitat relationships of migrant songbirds in a managed forest. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 73p.

ABSTRACT: I describe habitat use of several species of migrant forest songbirds that breed in managed oak forest in the Missouri Ozarks. I selected 58 sites on the Doniphan, Poplar Bluff, and Salem Ranger Districts of the Mark Twain National Forest, and on Pioneer Forest, a commercial forest. All sites were contained within a contiguous forest managed primarily for timber production. I investigated bird response to 5 treatments: 12 clearcut method sites, 12 shelterwood method sites, 12 group selection sites 10 single-tree selection method sites and 12 unharvested mature even-aged sites. Many bird species tended to select a particular habitat type. Early-successional forest bird species, such as the blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus) and yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens), were most abundant in the young forest habitats and showed strong associations with open canopy. Late-successional forest bird species, such as the ovenbird and the red-eyed vireo, were most abundant in the mature sites and selection treatments and showed strong relationships to high canopy closure. Hooded warblers had the most limited distributions and were found to be most abundant in the selection treatments. Clearcut and shelterwood treatments had the greatest species richness and total relative bird abundance.

Keywords: migrant songbirds, bird richness, bird abundance, clearcutting, group and single-tree selection, shelterwood.

English, W.R. 1983. Structural and functional response of macro invertebrates in artificial streams to sediment and triphenyl phosphate. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 139p.

ABSTRACT: The response of the aquatic invertebrate community in artificial streams contaminated with sediment and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) was examined. The benthos, drip and foregut analysis indicated that both the addition of sediment and sediment+TPP was detrimental to the stream community structure and function. Gut analysis on Hyalella azteca, Asellus brevicaudus and Stenonema femoratum showed treatment induced changes in food resource utilization.

Keywords: aquatic invertebrate, streams, sediment, structure.

Mitchell, M.R. 1985. Breeding bird occurrence in Mid-Missouri forest fragments. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 114p.

ABSTRACT: This study was conducted to explore the relationship between forest fragmentation and current avian populations in central Missouri in light of the island biogeographic theory of MacArthur and Wilson (1967). Total numbers of breeding bird species and Neotropical migrant breeding species were strongly correlated with island size. Breeding bird and Neotropical migrant breeding numbers increase as the size of the forest area increases.

Keywords: bird populations, forest fragmentation, neotropical migrants

Authors: W. Dustin Walter, Graduate Research Assistant and John P. Dwyer, Associate Professor, University of Missouri, Forestry Department, The School of Natural Resources, 203 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources, Building, Columbia, MO 65211.
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs)

Adams, T.O., and D.D. Hook. 1994. Compliance with silvicultural best management practices on harvested sites in South Carolina. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 18(4): 163-167.

ABSTRACT: One-hundred-seventy-seven harvested sites in South Carolina were evaluated for compliance with Best Management Practices (BMPs). South Carolina Forestry Commission (SCFC) foresters evaluated the roads, road stream crossings, streamside management zones, harvest operations, and log decks. In addition, each site was evaluated for overall BMP compliance, which was based on the level of both off-site and on-site impacts. Overall BMP compliance was 84.7%. Compliance was highest for log decks (97.7%), roads (92.0%), and harvest operations (89.8%) and lowest for streamside management zones (72.4%) and road stream crossings (41.7%). Nineteen variables were analyzed to determine their influence on BMP compliance. Two variables were responsible for the 27sites with inadequate ratings: (1) the presence of perennial and intermittent streams, and (2) logging under wet soil conditions. Compliance did not differ significantly among landowner categories or physiographic regions. To improve BMP compliance, landowners should identify sensitive sites and take adequate steps to protect them during timber harvesting.

Keywords: Best Management Practices (BMPs), streamside, stream crossing, road, landowner, South Carolina, harvest operations

Henson, Mickey. 1995. Forest practice guidelines and Best Management Practices implementation and effectiveness survey on timber operations in North Carolina. North Carolina Division of Forest Resources Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources, Raleigh, North Carolina. August, 1995. 22p.

ABSTRACT: Assesses North Carolina's compliance with forestry BMPs, including compliance in the areas of roads, buffer strips, skid trails and water bars.
Based upon findings in this study, compliance with North Carolina's forestry BMPs and FPGs can be increased and improved in the following ways:
1. BMP workshops, such as the Prologger workshops given by the North Carolina Forestry Association (NCFA) and this division, should continue and possibly increase in frequency.
2. Education should focus on pre-harvest planning and how to avoid sensitive areas on harvest sites. Also, the use of correctly installed water bars and adequate SMZs should be strongly stressed expressed to loggers and timber buyers.
3. A statewide database should be created to better monitor the level of forestry BMP compliance.
Keywords: Best Management Practices (BMP), North Carolina, roads, buffer strips, trails.

Kochenderfer, J.N., P.J. Edwards, and F. Wood. 1997. Hydrologic impacts of logging an Appalachian watershed using West Virginia's Best Management Practices. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(4): 207-218.

ABSTRACT: A 39 ha gauged watershed located in north-central West Virginia near Parsons was cut to a 35.5cm stump diameter and logged using wheeled skidders to evaluate the effectiveness of West Virginia's Best Management Practices (BMPs). Roads initially occupied 10.6% of the watershed, but this percentage is decreasing as much of the original road prism reverts to forest. Reducing basal area by 44% in stems 2.54 cm dbh and larger had a negligible effect on maximum growing season stream temperatures, apparently because the stream remained shaded by residual trees and understory shrubs growing along it. Both growing season peakflows and total stormflow had small but significant increases due to treatment. Dormant season stormflow did not increase significantly. Although mean monthly exports of suspended sediment doubled the first year when the area was being logged, they remained within the range reported for carefully managed areas in the East. Sediment exports returned to pretreatment levels by the third post treatment year. Long-term projections of current exports rates indicate that sediment exports from harvesting operations (3 entries) during a 100 yr rotation will account for less than 5% of the total sediment exported from the study watershed. Nitrate exports increased significantly during most of the monitored post treatment years, but fertilizer applied to the roads during grass seeding is believed to have contributed to these increases. Actual concentration values remained low, with maximum concentrations well below standards for potable water. Calcium concentrations also increased during most years, but road liming during seeding probably was responsible for most of this increase. The BMPs used in this study were effective in minimizing adverse impacts to soil and water resources.

Keywords: Best Management Practices, BMPs, logging roads, stream, watershed.

CHIP MILLS

Gray, J., and J. Guldin. 1997. Hardwood chip export mills in Arkansas - implications for sustainability. Paper presented at the Symposium on Arkansas Forests - a conference on the results of the recent Forest Survey of Arkansas. May 30-31, North Little Rock, AR.

ABSTRACT: Two new hardwood chip export mills (HCEM's) recently began operating in west-central Arkansas, and a third is planned. Together, they will require 1.1 million tons of non-hickory hardwood roundwood annually, primarily from the nonindustrial private sector. Overall, total physical and operable growth surpluses could support the new sector, but purchasable surpluses are barely adequate now and may be less than adequate by 2005. The HCEM's will generate about 630 direct and indirect jobs and $16.75 million in yearly wages and stumpage payments. However, if all of the new demand is met by unsightly harvesting methods, tourism related job losses after 15 years could offset HCEM-generated employment. Because HCEM's will increase competition for hardwood, some small sawmills may go out of business, although the turnover of small sawmills was high even before HCEM's entered the market. The HCEM market for small hardwoods is less than ideal, but these mills can process "rough" and "rotten" trees. HCEM harvesting is generally not good forestry; to date, it has tended to take the best trees and leave the worst. This could improve if landowners were better informed and willing to reinvest following harvest. The effects of HCEM's on Arkansas hardwood forests as a whole are not expected to be great. Although protection of soils and water quality has been inconsistent, the new sector appears to be committed to provide such protection on lands they harvest. The authors present six recommendations designed to promote a positive effect of new sector operations on the sustainability of timber resources and other forest values.

Keywords: hardwood chip export mills, roundwood, sustainability, forest values, Arkansas, jobs, tourism.

Smith, D. 1997. Chipping forest and jobs: A report on the economic and environmental impacts of chip mills in the Southeast. The Dogwood Alliance, P.O. Box 4193, Chattanooga, Tennessee. 82p.

ABSTRACT: The recent proliferation of chip mills in the southeastern U.S. is causing unprecedented forest destruction, degrading not only water quality, wildlife threatened and endangered species and forest health, but also our local economies. Last year alone, an estimated 1.2 million acres were cleared to feed the 140 chip mills in the region. Chip mill operations perpetuate short cutting cycles, thereby reducing native forest ecosystems to fiber farms. Removals of softwoods throughout the South have already exceeded growth, and experts predict a shortage of hardwoods within the next two to ten years. In addition, experts predict that by the year 2020, 70% of the native pine forests in the South will have been converted to pine plantations to meet increases in industry demand for softwood fiber.
This report published by the Dogwood Alliance and the Native Forest Network documents the trends in forestry, with special focus on the pulp and paper industry. They present many impacts which chip mills potentially will have on the environment, communities, forestry and related jobs, as well as effects on private landowners. Also presented are their solutions to the chip mill problem.

Keywords: chip mills, economics, community, forest, South, fiber, softwoods, industry.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 1. Knoxville, TN. 408p.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 2, Appendices. Knoxville, TN. 409-910.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. Final environmental impact statement chip mill terminals on the Tennessee River. Volume 3, Response to Public Comments. Knoxville, TN. 911-1270.

ABSTRACT: The environmental consequences of denying, approving, or approving with mitigation measures one or more chip mill barge terminals between river miles 412 and 424 of the Tennessee River are analyzed. The impact analysis includes both localized (on-site) and procurement area(off-site) impacts. Localized impacts are those that are directly or indirectly associated with construction and operation of a barge terminal, use of TVA land for access to the barge terminal, and use of adjacent private land for a chip mill. Procurement area impacts are associated with timber harvest. After weighing the potential benefits of the pending requests with the likelihood of substantial, cumulative localized impacts and the risk of significant harvesting-related impacts, TVA's preferred alternative is denial of all proposed actions.

Keywords: environmental consequences, chip mill, barge terminals, Tennessee, procurement, timber harvest.

Willamette Industries: Chip mill 101. http://www.wii.com/CHIPMILL.HTM

ABSTRACT: Willamette's point of view on and some questions answered about chip mills.

Keywords: chip mill, Willamette.
CURRENT / ONGOING RESEARCH

Cubbage, F.W., and D.D. Richter. 1998. Cooperative Research Proposal: Economic and ecologic impacts associated with wood chip production in North Carolina. The Southern Center For Sustainable Forests. (Unpublished; Study in progress).

OBJECTIVES: The research project will be developed as an integrated study of economic and ecologic impacts of wood chip production in North Carolina. The economic component will examine direct financial impacts and broad economic issues of wood chip production. It will employ large scale economic and timber supply models to examine:
(1) the impacts of wood chip production on timber supply;
(2) the effect of wood chip production on wood-based manufacturing firms;
(3) the effects of improved timber markets for forest landowners;
(4) the market and nonmarket impacts on economically efficient forest management practices and on forest conditions; and
(5) the impacts of wood chip production on local economies, infrastructure, and communities.
The ecologic component will evaluate the effects of expanded wood chip production on individual forest stands and regional landscapes by using literature reviews, field surveys, and models to examine:
(1) how wood chip production alters ecology of forest management practices in North Carolina;
(2) direct, indirect, and cumulative effects of wood chip production on forest structure, plant and animal communities, soil erosion and fertility, and water quality;
(3) the impacts of wood chip mills on stormwater and waste water runoff from processing facilities; and
(4) evaluating forest management options for assuring sustainability of North Carolina's forest resources as harvest pressures continue to mount, and as forest values continue to increase.

Keywords: economic, ecologic, timber supply, soil, water, stormwater, forest, North Carolina.

Tennessee Forest Management Advisory Panel. 1998. Final Report. Report to: Governor , Commissioner of Agriculture, Tennessee Forestry Commission, and Tennessee General Assembly. 66p.

ABSTRACT: The Panel was established by Senate Joint Resolution No. 230. The charge was to evaluate and recommend appropriate policy and operational programs that promote forest sustainability and sound stewardship on Tennessee forest lands. Such recommendations were to include guidelines for the management of state forest lands, and programs and services to all forest landowners. For all recommendations proposed, the Panel sought and utilized scientific and authoritative data to reach its conclusions. Suggestions are also made for funding these recommendations. Great strides were made by the Panel in balancing widely divergent resource needs by using widely diverse interest groups to develop consensus recommendations. The Panel identified an array of important issues, many being too complex to resolve in a short period of study. The recommendations of the Panel, if implemented, can be the forerunner of an ongoing process leading to the achievement of forest sustainability in Tennessee.

Keywords: sustainability, Tennessee forest lands.

EROSION

Beasley, R.S., A.B. Granillo, and V. Zillmer. 1986. Sediment losses from forest management: mechanical vs. chemical site preparation after clearcutting. Journal of Environmental Quality. 15(4): 413-416.

ABSTRACT: The comparative effects of mechanical and chemical site preparation on water yields and sediment losses following forest clearcutting were evaluated over a 4-yr period in the Athens Plateau area of southwestern Arkansas. After 1 yr of pretreatment measurements, three forested watersheds were clearcut and the residual vegetation and debris were sheared and windrowed but not burned. Three watersheds were clearcut in a similar manner, but received chemical site preparations. Residual trees on two watersheds were injected with 2-4,D amine; the third watershed was serially sprayed with a mixture of Tordon* (active ingredient; picloram [4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicoline acid]) and GarlonR (active ingredient; triclopyr [3,5,6-trichloro- 2-pyridinyloxy-acetic acid]). Three additional watersheds were left undisturbed for controls. Mean annual sediment losses on the mechanically, site prepared watersheds during the first post treatment year were significantly higher than those from either the chemically site prepared watersheds or controls. Chemical site preparation did not significantly increase sediment losses. Although 2nd yr losses for the mechanical site preparation and control treatments doubled over 1st-yr levels, so significant treatment effect was detected for either site preparation treatment. Third-year losses decreased below 1st-yr losses for all treatments but not to pretreatment year levels. The relatively sharp declines in sediment losses during the third post treatment year were attributed to rapid regrowth of natural vegetation on the sites.

Keywords: Nonpoint source pollution, erosion, water-sheds, forest hydrology.
Grace, J.M., B. Rummer, B.J. Stokes, and J. Wilhoit. 1998. Evaluation of erosion control techniques on forest roads. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 41(2): 383-391.

ABSTRACT: The cutslope and fillslope on a newly constructed forest road on the Talladega National Forest near Heflin, Alabama were treated with three erosion control techniques: wood excelsior erosion mat, native grass species, and exotic grass species. Bare soil plots were used as the experimental controls. Total sediment yield was measured during the period 21, September 1995 to 18, March 1996. A randomized complete block design was used to evaluate treatment methods on the basis of sediment yield and runoff volume. No significant difference in sediment yield was found from the fillslope among the treatments. However, on the cutslope significant differences were detected among all treatments. The erosion mat treatment was most effective in mitigating erosion losses with a 98% reduction in cutslope sediment yield and 88% reduction in fillslope sediment yield.

Keywords: Forest roads, soil erosion, conservation practices, slopes, economics.

Kochenderfer, J.N. 1970. Erosion control on logging roads in the Appalachians. Res. Pap. NE-158. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 28 p.

ABSTRACT: In the steep terrain of the Appalachian Mountains much damage to forest streams is caused by erosion on logging roads. Muddy water that is unsuitable for fish, swimming, or human consumption often can be traced to these eroding roads. This paper has been prepared to sum up what land managers know about preventing and controlling erosion on logging roads in the Appalachians.
This paper covers the process of design, construction of and maintenance of logging roads, and ends with the proper care of that road following the logging operation.

Keywords: logging roads, erosion, maintenance, seeding, construction.

Miller, E.L., R.S. Beasley, and E.R. Lawson. 1988. Forest harvest and site preparation effects on erosion and sedimentation in the Ouachita Mountains. Journal of Environmental Quality. 17(2): 219-225.

ABSTRACT: Soil erosion and sedimentation effects of three silvicultural treatments-- clearcutting, selection cutting and no disturbance (control) were compared in a replicated small watershed study conducted in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas on shallow soils derived from sandstones and shales. Clearcutting significantly increased annual sediment yields over selection and control treatments in 1981, the first year, after treatment but not in 1982 or 1983. Clearcut to control sediment yield ratios were 20:1, 6:1, and 2.6:1 in 1981, 1982, and 1983, respectively. First-year sediment losses from clearcuts averaged 237 kg ha-1. Stream channels were stable, but they still may have been the primary source of the sediment losses. Erosion following harvest and site preparation did not exceed estimates of long term soil formation rates. Long-term soil losses were projected to average 70 kg ha-l yr-1 over a 35-yr rotation period with clearcutting while control rates were projected to average 50 kg ha-' yr-1. A comparison of soil losses measured in this study with baseline rates and estimated soil loss tolerances suggests site productivity need not be threatened by silviculturally induced soil erosion. Suspended solids levels of storm flow were less than 100, 50, and 20 mg L-1 at least 99, 98, and 97 % of the time, respectively, across

treatments. Only at the 10 mg L-1 level was there a significant total suspended solids time differential in watershed stormflow between clearcut or selection cut and control treatments.

Keywords: Total suspended solids, Turbidity, Clear-cutting, Selection cutting, Ouachita.

Patric, J.H. 1976. Soil erosion in the Eastern forest. Journal of Forestry.
47(10): 671-677.

ABSTRACT: This paper provides an overview of what is known about forest soil erosion in eastern United States. By most accounts, erosion form undisturbed as well as carefully managed forest land is 0.05 to 0.10 ton/acre/year; that is less than the geologic norm (0.18 to 0.30) and far less than maximum tolerable rates for agricultural land (1 to 5 tons/acre/year). Eroded material is about equal parts of particulate and dissolved matter. Responsibly managed timber harvest causes only minor increases in forest soil erosion, usually from channels and logging roads, but irresponsible timber harvest can increase erosion of particulate matter to unacceptable levels.

Keywords: forest soil erosion, logging roads, agricultural land, geologic norm.

Patric, J.H. 1977. Soil erosion and its control in eastern woodlands. Northern Logger and Timber Processor. 25(11): 4-5, 22-23.

ABSTRACT: One of the few ideas that most people can agree upon is that woodland is our surest protection against accelerated soil erosion. People have concurred in this belief since history began but our concept of how forests protect the soil is evolving even now. A considerable part of this evolution is spanned by my career with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Three conclusions are reached:
(1) Because overland flow rarely occurs in the eastern hardwood forest, there is no mechanism to transport particulate matter across the forest floor. Eroded material, consisting equally of particulate matter and dissolved solids, originates primarily in stream channels. This material averages about 0.05 to 0.10 ton per acre per year.
(2) Tree cutting does not cause overland flow so it has only a negligible and temporary effect on soil erosion rates and on stream pollution.
(3) Logging, especially in streams, can cause erosion rates to increase greatly, but logging roads more frequently are sites of accelerated erosion.

Keywords: overland flow, eastern woodland, soil erosion, logging, streams, roads.

Patric, J.H. 1978. Harvesting effects on soil and water in the Eastern Hardwood forest. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 2(3): 66-73.

ABSTRACT: For the eastern United States, there is overwhelming evidence that neither the productivity of forest soil nor the quality of forest water are substantially lessened during or after responsibly managed harvest of wood products. Carelessness, however, damages both resources. The key is forest roads; they cause little adverse effect on soil or water given proper location, drainage, traffic control, and maintenance. The public must better understand that it bears much of the cost for these measures.

Keywords: forest roads, location, drainage, soil, water, eastern hardwood forest.

Settergren, C.D., R.M. Nugent and D.M. Smith. 1980. Factors controlling surface flow and sediment yield following clearcutting in the oak-hickory of the Missouri Ozarks. In: Proc. 3rd Cent. Hardwoods For. Conf. University of Missouri.
66-76.

ABSTRACT: Disturbance of the vegetation, protective litter layer and soil on a forested watershed during logging can lead to localized overland flow and erosion. A paired watershed study was initiated to the determine the effects of clearcutting on runoff and sediment yield in the oak-hickory type of the Missouri Ozarks. A network of 20 runoff plots was established in the logged and undisturbed portions of both watersheds to identify the source areas for surface flow and erosion. Plots were located so as to sample a range of physiographic positions. Total storm runoff and sediment yield have been inventoried for all precipitation events since March, 1979 for each plot and related through multiple regression analysis to a number of site factors. Precipitation variables included total storm volume; average storms, maximum 5 minute and maximum 30 minute intensities; and canopy throughfall. Other variables inventoried included surface soil cover, antecedent surface soil moisture and plot location with respect to slope percent, aspect and position. While data have been extremely variable between storms and between plots, runoff for the clearcut areas has averaged ten time greater than that for the undisturbed plots. Moreover, sediment yield has been as much as 100 times greater for the disturbed plots in the clearcut area. Additional research will be required to more clearly define cause-effect relationships. Although the influence of a number of storm and site related factors on the surface runoff and sediment yield processes can be easily observed in the field, and have often been empirically verified, this study has demonstrated that, under certain circumstances, the relationships between storm/site factors and runoff and sediment yield are far from straightforward.

Keywords: runoff, sediment yield, precipitation, forest disturbance, clearcutting.
HISTORY AND ECOLOGY

Beilmann, A.P., and L.G. Brenner. 1951. The recent intrusion of forests in the Ozarks. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 38: 261-282.

ABSTRACT: Scanlan (1950), in writing of American forests, says: "The lumber barons began to despoil and they did an excellent job." This statement might correctly be applied to a specific region but a lumber baron could not operate in a prairie region. Seemingly, it cannot be applied at all to the eastern and northern portions of the Ozarks. Within historic times this vast region was a prairie, or at least park-like in that the trees were widely spaced and confined to the water-courses and drainage-ways. The logging operations which are now so much a part of the industry of the Ozark region are but little more than a century old. The loggers have been, and still are, cutting the first crop of trees to mature there. In some sections any tree large enough to yield a 2 x 4 is cut; and the region will be scoured again and again for more trees of that size. However, there is evidence to show that insufficient time has elapsed to develop a mature second growth of either pine or hardwoods.
This paper gives an excellent recounting of the ecological history; including fire, human settlement, soils, and vegetation and forest coverage in the Ozarks.

Keywords: ecology, history, forest, Ozark region, vegetation, flora, fire.

Cunningham R.J., and C. Hauser. 1989. The decline of the Missouri Ozark forest between 1880 and 1920. In: Waldrop, Thomas A., ed. Proceedings of pine-hardwood mixtures: A symposium on management and ecology of the type; 1989 April 18-19; Atlanta, GA: Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-58. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 34-37.

ABSTRACT: Missouri's presettlement pine and oak-pine forest once extended over six million acres. Today the pine and oak-pine cover types occur on less than 400,000 acres. Between 1880 and 1920, some of the Nation's largest producing sawmills were operating in Missouri's Eastern Ozarks region. A historic review of this period's industrial and social activities toward the Ozark forests illustrates how an area once dominated by pine was converted to hardwoods.

Keywords: History, pine, oak, Missouri Ozarks, pine-hardwood.

Hansen, T.A., T.A. Spies, F.J. Swanson, and J.L. Ohmann. 1991. Conserving biodiversity in managed forests. BioScience 41(6): 382-392.

ABSTRACT: Consensus is emerging among ecologists that biological diversity will not be conserved effectively in natural reserves alone(Wilcove 1989). The existing reserve network is too small, major expansion is unlikely, and barriers to migration make species in reserves especially vulnerable to global climate change(Westman 1990). Therefore, Harris(1984) recommends that the reserves be complemented with a matrix of "seminatural" lands where ecological principles are used to manage both for commodity production and conservation of species diversity. The challenge now is to design and effectively manage such multipurpose landscapes (Franklin et al. 1986, Hunter 1990).
Studies of unmanaged forests teach us that natural disturbance maintains structural complexity within stands and that this complexity promotes plant and animal diversity. Attention to structural complexity is a core concept of the "new forestry" now being advocated in the coastal Northwest (Franklin 1989, Gillis 1990). Another lesson from natural forests is that old growth is only one of the common natural seral stages, and each stage provides important and/or critical habitats to some plants and animals. Finally, comparisons between natural and managed forests teach us that native species diversity is influenced by the size, distribution, edge characteristics, and dispersion of stands across landscapes. They suggest that these lessons are not unique to the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Biodiversity, natural disturbance, structure, ecology, landscape.

Homes, T.P., and R.A. Kramer. 1995. Economic values, ethics, and ecosystem health. Southeastern Center for Forest Economics Research, Research Triangle Park, NC. SCFER Working Paper No. 80, 25 p.

ABSTRACT: Economic valuations of changes in ecosystem health can provide quantitative information for social decisions. However, willingness to pay for ecosystem health may be motivated by an environmental ethic regarding the right thing to do. Counter preferential choices based on an environmental ethic are inconsistent with the normative basis of welfare economics. In this paper, we examine some of the characteristics of willingness to pay values elicited using the contingent valuation method. Sequential contingent willingness to pay values for different levels of protection of high-elevation spruce-fir forests in the southern Appalachian Mountains were elicited from a random sample of households along with socioeconomic and other information. An empirical analysis indicated that willingness to pay distributions and average willingness to pay did not vary with the level of protection. We discuss various factors that may explain our results including lexicographic preferences, low marginal values, lack of instrument sensitivity, or misrepresentation of the ecosystem services valued by the public. We conclude that further theoretical development of the relation between ethical motivations and economic value is warranted.

Keywords: economic, values, ethics, ecosystem health, pay, Appalachian Mountains.

Johnson. Paul S. 1992. Perspectives an the ecology, and silviculture of oak-dominated forests in the Central and Eastern States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-153. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 28 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes the historical and ecological relations between oaks, fire, and humans and reports the consequent silvicultural options and limitations in managing and sustaining oak dominated forests.

Keywords: Quercus, oak, fire, regeneration methods, savannas, old growth.

Johnson, T.G., D.P. Stratton. 1998. Historical trends of timber product output in the South. Resour. Bull. SRS-33. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Sta6on. 56 p.

ABSTRACT: Historical data of periodic canvasses of primary wood-using plants are presented for the 13 Southern States. They are Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Cubic foot and standard volume tables are presented for production only. Production is the sum of timber harvested and used within a State, plus all roundwood exported to other U.S. States.

Keywords: Production, pulpwood, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs.

Messina, M.G., S.H. Schoenholtz, M.W. Lowe, Z. Wang, D.K. Gunter, and A.J. Londo. 1997. Initial responses of woody vegetation, water quality, and soils to harvesting intensity in a Texas bottomland hardwood ecosystem. Forest Ecology and Management. 90(2,3): 201-215.

ABSTRACT: Sustainable management of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems requires a knowledge of responses to management impacts, including timber harvesting. The effects of clearcutting and partial cutting on woody vegetation regeneration dynamics, surface and groundwater quality, soil physical properties, and soil respiration were tested in a bottomland hardwood ecosystem in southeastern Texas, USA, through comparison with non-cut control areas. Overstory removal only slightly affected composition of woody vegetation regeneration 1 year after harvesting compared with pre-harvest composition. Initial composition in both cutting treatments appeared to be the strongest determinant of post-harvest composition, at least for the first year after harvesting. There were few significant differences in groundwater properties when harvesting treatments were compared with control areas during a 17-month period following harvest. Turbidity, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved O2, NH4-N, and PO4-P of stream water did not vary significantly among treatments. Slight decreases in total and macro porosity were observed in association with higher bulk densities at 0-5 cm depth in the clearcut and partial cut treatments. Saturated hydraulic conductivity values did not decline significantly with treatment intensity. No significant differences among treatments in measured soil physical properties were observed at 5- 10 cm depth. Although in situ soil respiration increased with harvest intensity, treatment had no significant effect on mineral soil respiration. In summary, most variables showed only slight response to harvesting, thereby indicating that harvesting practices can be conducted with minimal initial impacts on measured response variables.

Keywords: Wetlands; Species diversity; Soil respiration; Clearcutting; Regeneration.

Sedjo, R.A. 1992. Preserving biodiversity as a resource. Resources. Winter 1992: 26-29.

ABSTRACT: Wild plants and animals can provide natural chemicals and compounds for producing drugs and other products, information and ideas for developing synthetic chemicals and compounds, and genes for engineering plants and animals with desirable sets of traits. Despite their value, wild species are threatened by destruction of natural habitats. Because there are no property rights to wild species or the genetic resources embodied in them, habitat protection tends to be undervalued, particularly in developing countries. However, contractual arrangements that allow these countries to trade the right to collection of their wild genetic resources in return for compensation could foster habitat protection in the absence of such property rights.

Keywords: biodiversity, property rights, habitat.

Starkey, Dale A. 1993. Crown health of overstory hardwoods. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 172-181.

ABSTRACT: Monitoring the health of reserve hardwood trees is being performed as part of the Ecosystem Management Research Project for shortleaf pine-oak forest types on the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas. Results will provide information about the success of retaining such trees and to provide guidelines for selecting reserve trees in future operational harvests. Reserve trees are mostly 10 to 12 inch d.b.h. codominant and intermediate oaks. A suite of crown measurements (diameter, live crown ratio, density, dieback, and foliage transparency) is being used to detect significant changes in reserve tree health over time. Average ratings for these indicators before harvest appear to be within normal ranges for each species. Immediately after harvest, 16 to 62 percent of reserve trees had logging injury to the base, crown, or both. Injury frequency generally increased with the intensity of harvest cutting. Most injury was judged slight or moderate in severity.

Keywords: injury, harvest intensity, health, crown, oak, shortleaf pine.

Yarnell, S.L. 1998. The Southern Appalachians: a history of the landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-18. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 45 p.

ABSTRACT: Natural and geological processes have changed the Southern Appalachian landscape repeatedly over millions of years. About 12,000 years ago, humans arrived and became important agents of change. The extent and degree of human influence increased along with the population. Today, pressure remains intense on the Southern Appalachian landscape and management issues bring contention as different groups seek to use the region's resources in different ways.

Keywords: Agriculture, environmental history, lumber industry, mining, prehistory, Southern Appalachian, tourism.
INVENTORY and SURVEY

Abt, R.C., F.W. Cubbage, G. Pacheco. 1995. The timber supply situation in the Southeast: Implications for intensive management. In: Proceedings, 23rd Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. June 20-22, 1995. Asheville, NC. 1-6.

ABSTRACT: For as long as we have been collecting inventory information, the southern timber inventory has been increasing. In the last decade, however, softwood removals in the South have exceeded growth. If current trends continue, hardwood removals will exceed growth in about a decade. If availability and operability constraints are considered, the supply situation looks even more serious. These structural changes in the supply situation, coupled with increasing demand on the resource have led to dramatic price increases. This paper analyzes past trends and assesses the future supply and price situation for the South. The potential effect of intensive management on both regional supply and wood cost will also be examined.

Keywords: timber supply, markets, prices, inventory.

American Forest and Paper Association. Forest and Paper Industry state economic impact statements. http://www.afandpa.org/Congressional/eis/index.html.

ABSTRACT: America's forest and paper industry ranges from state-of-the-art paper mills to small family-owned saw mills and some 9 million individual woodlot owners. As a whole, the industry ranks among the top 10 manufacturing employers in 46 states, employs some 1.6 million people, and produces wood and paper products valued at more than $230 billion each year. America's forest products industry is also among the most competitive in the world, with annual exports totaling over $23 billion. Included in this file are the overview reports of the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, North and South Carolina, and Tennessee. For each state figures based on the contribution of forest products to the employment, income, value, capital expenditures, number of mills and related businesses, production, and timberland ownership are presented.

Keywords: forest and paper industry, family owned saw mills, South, forest products.

Beltz, R.C. 1991. Forest survey results for higher grade hardwood sawtimber. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. In: Proceedings of 19th annual hardwood symposium of the Hardwood Research Council: facing uncertain futures and changing rules in the 1990's; 1991 March 10-12; Starkville, MS. Memphis, TN; Hardwood Research Council: 135-145.

ABSTRACT: The 1987 Forest Survey of Mississippi shows a slight increase in forest area and a substantial gain in hardwood inventory. Hardwood gains, appearing in all diameter classes, suggest an increase in quality but hardwood users generally believe quality is declining. By our analysis, volume of top quality hardwood declined while volume in other grades increased. Forest Survey grading is conservative when compared with grades assigned by a hardwood specialist. User constraints applied to the survey data base severely limit the amount of "available" quality hardwood. Forest Survey data are available so users can conduct their own analyses.

KEYWORDS: forest survey, Mississippi, hardwood, grade.

Constance, D.H. and J.S. Rikoon. 1997. Missouri citizens' attitudes towards forest resources: Comparative and present perspectives. Executive Summary Presented to: The Forestry Division, Missouri Department of Conservation. Department of Rural Sociology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources. University of Missouri - Columbia. 46p.

ABSTRACT: The Forestry Division of the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC) contracted with the Department of Rural Sociology in the College of Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources at the University of Missouri-Columbia to conduct and analyze a survey of Missouri residents regarding a number of forest land use and conservation knowledge issues. This project is a replication of a 1993 study called the "Benchmark Survey" done by MDC. As in 1993, the survey instrument dealt with a number of forest use and management issues as well as several questions related to Missouri citizens' environmental views. The survey gave respondents the opportunity to state their opinions and perceptions on such issues as the seriousness of a variety of environmental problems, the value of forests in general and government-owned forests in particular, their general knowledge of Missouri forests, and the responsibility and duties of the Forestry Division of MDC. The 1996 survey contains some slight modifications of the 1993 instrument which are noted in the final report.
A summary of respondents perceptions of Missouri forest and forestry practices.

Keywords: MDC, Missouri forest, survey, environmental views.

Dubois, M.R., W.F. Watson, and B.J. Stokes. 1992. Utilization of southern hardwood logs for chips by species and size. In: Proceedings of the 1992 Tappi Pulping Conference; 1992 November 1-5; Boston, MA. Atlanta, GA: Tappi Press. Book 1: 369-374.

ABSTRACT: Results of a woodyard study in northeast Mississippi examining the effects of log size add hardwood tree species on log utilization and chip quality are presented. Utilizations defined as weight of a debarked log divided by the weight of the undebarked log expressed as a percent. Utilization averaged 85.2 percent for oaks, 79.2 percent for sweetgum, 85.0 percent for mixed species, and 75.1 percent for hickories. Differences in utilization within a species is attributed to log size and log breakage during debarking. In the chip quality analysis, the highest percentage of acceptable sized chips were associated with the 22.9 cm log diameter class rather than with the larger 27.9 cm diameter class for the oak and mixed species groups. For sweetgums, levels of acceptable sized chips were not significantly different between the three largest log diameter classes. Oversized chips were minimized with the 22.9 cm log diameter class for the oaks, sweetgums, and mixed species groups. Levels of fines and pin chip production varied among the log diameter classes according to species group. In hickories, the 27.9-cm log diameter produced the highest levels of acceptable sized chips and lowest levels of fines, pins, and oversized chips. Bark content for oak, sweetgum, and hickory species were all under 1 percent of the total chip sample. Bark content for the smaller diameter log, classes in the mixed species group was over 3.5 percent.

Keywords: oak, chip quality, debark, hickory, log diameter.

Feather, Dan. 1998. Increased clearcutting for woodchip production in Tennessee: Statistics, Effects, and Trends. The Center. LaFollette, TN. http://users.multipro.com/RRSOCM/ 6p.

ABSTRACT: In 1989, about 2.7 million tons of timber were cut in Tennessee to make woodchips for pulp and paper. Hardwoods comprised about 1.1 million tons of this total. This resulted in over harvesting in 17 counties statewide.
By 1996, the cutting of hardwoods for chips tripled to 3.3 million tons, due to increased demand from existing mills and from twelve new log export facilities. Total removals for woodchip production reached 5.2 million tons.
In 1997-after the date of the most recent data used within this report- three new high-capacity chip mills were located in Tennessee, or were sourcing logs from Tennessee, and are expected to keep forest consumption growing at a high rate. Over harvesting will increase.
Projecting a modest growth rate of only half that of recent years, about 6 million acres of trees (half of all Tennessee's forest land) will be needed by the year 2016. This level of clearcutting will doubtless have drastic effects on the hardwood industry. Long-term effects on the health and productivity of Tennessee's forests are unknown.

Keywords: Tennessee, clearcutting, wood chips, chip mills.

Hackett, R.L., S. Jones, and R.J. Piva. 1993. Missouri timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1991. Resour. Bull. NC-151. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 46p.

ABSTRACT: Discusses recent Missouri forest industry trends; production and receipts of saw logs; and production of charcoal, veneer logs, cooperage logs, and other products in 1991. Reports on logging residue, on wood and bark residue generated at primary wood-using mills, and on disposition of this residue.

Keywords: saw logs, charcoal, cooperage, veneer logs, roundwood, residue.

Hahn, J.T., and J.S. Spencer, Jr. 1991. Timber resource of Missouri, statistical report, 1989. Resourc. Bull. NC-119. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 123 p.

ABSTRACT: The fourth Missouri forest inventory found 14.0 million acres of forest land in 1989, of which 13.4 million acres (96 percent) is timberland. This bulletin presents highlights and statistics on area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Keywords: area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Howel, M., and R. Levins. 1998. Arkansas' timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1996. Resour. Bull. SRS-28. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 23 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1996, roundwood output from Arkansas' forests totaled 636 million cubic feet. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers was 286 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 315 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 242million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 74 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants was 147 in 1996. Total receipts were 661 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.
Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and J.L. Wells. 1997. Georgia's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-14. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 37 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Georgia's forests totaled 1.3 billion cubic feet, 7 percent more than in 1992. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers declined 10 percent to 474 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used, primarily for fuel and fiber products. Pulpwood was the leading roundwood product at 617 million cubic feet; saw logs ranked second at 552 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third with 79 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 250 in 1992 to 207 in1995. Total receipts increased 6 percent to almost 1.4 billion cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and L. Lowe. 1997. Kentucky's Timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-20. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 33 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Kentucky's forests totaled more than 186 million cubic feet, 35 percent more than in 1996. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 84 percent to 110 million cubic feet. More than 94 percent of the plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 161 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 20million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 435 in 1986 to 401 in 1995. Total receipts increased 43 percent to almost 212 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, and D.R. Brown. 1997. North Carolina's timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-18. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 35 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from North Carolina's forests totaled 833 million cubic feet, 2 percent less than in 1994. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 1 percent to 301 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at398 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 332 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 66 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 322 in 1994 to 320 in 1995. Total receipts declined 4 percent to under 743 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, D.P. Stratton, and P.S. Bischoff. 1997. South Carolina's timber industry - an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-16. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Station. 31 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from South Carolina's forests totaled 622 million cubic feet, 5 percent less than in 1994. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers declined 4 percent to 203 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Pulpwood was the leading roundwood product at320 million cubic feet; saw logs ranked second at 247 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 50 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 105 in 1994 to 99 in 1995. Total receipts declined 5 percent to about 619 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Johnson, T.G., A. Jenkins, J.A. Sciivani, and J.M. Foreman. 1997. Virginia's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-19. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 37 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Virginia's forests totaled more than 455 million cubic feet, 4 percent more than in 1992. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 3 percent to 167 million cubic feet. Almost 97 percent of the residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 213 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 201 million cubic feet; composite panels were third at 21 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants declined from 311 in 1992 to 289 in 1995. Total receipts increased 3percent to almost 485 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood, residues, roundwood, saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Leatherberry, E.C. 1993. Using forest Inventory data to assess use restrictions on private timberland in Illinois. Resour. Bull. NC- 149. St. Paul. MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.

ABSTRACT: Illustrates the kinds of information that can be generated from forest resource inventory data about access restrictions on private timberland.

Keywords: Private land, public access, use restrictions.

London, J.D. 1997. Forest Statistics for Arkansas Counties - 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS- 017. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 57p.

ABSTRACT: This report contains the statistical tables and figures derived from data obtained during the 1995 inventory of Arkansas. The multi-resource inventory included 75 counties and five survey regions (fig. 1). Data was collected during the period of June1994 through October 1996.

Keywords: Arkansas, inventory, forest, survey.

McKeever, T. and H. Spelter. 1998. Wood-Based panel plant locations and timber availability in selected U.S. States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. General Technical Report. FPL-GTR-103: 5 p.

ABSTRACT: This report lists wood-based panel industry plant locations, production capacities, timber inventories, and wood costs for 24 U.S. states. Industry sectors covered include medium-density fiberboard, particle board, softwood plywood, and oriented strandboard. Maps of major forest producing states show plant locations and the underlying density of timber stocking by county. The study relates physical measures of timber availability to market measures of timber scarcity and draws inferences about the potential of selected states to increase timber output at their present rate of forest productivity.

Keywords: Oriented strandboard, plywood, particle board, medium-density fiberboard, capacity.

Northeastern area forest health report. 1992. Northeastern Area, NA-TP-03-93. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 57 p.

ABSTRACT: The National Forest Health Monitoring Program is focusing on assessing the condition of our nation's forests in response to the interests and concerns of the American people. As a part of the program, this report was produced in an effort to present information about forest condition and forest stressors (insects, pathogens, weather, fire, and air quality) with respect to major forest types. This document provides an historical perspective on the influence of the various forest stressors and assesses recent impact, through 1991, on the forests within the 20 States that comprise the Northeastern Area of the USDA Forest Service. Through these annual reports, we hope to be able to
identify factors that may be affecting forest condition within this area.

Keywords: forest health, Northeastern, Missouri, forest type.

Pacheco, G., R.C. Abt, and F.W. Cubbage. 1996. South-wide timber supply projection and assessment. Paper presented at the 1996 Southern Forest Economics Workshop. Gatlinburg, Tennessee. March 27-29. 93-109 pp.

ABSTRACT: Results from a South-wide timber supply projection to the year 2020 are examined and compared against national projections. Using the latest FIA survey unit data for the South (excluding Kentucky and public ownerships) individual state inventories were updated to 1994 as a common starting point for the projection. Only private ownerships were considered in the model. Softwood prices are projected to increase seven times and hardwood prices over two and a half times over the projection period. The largest projected price increases for softwoods occur during the decade 2010 to2020. Inventory of softwoods is projected to decrease by 30 percent relative to the starting year, and hardwoods to increase only slightly by 2 percent South-wide softwoods growth to removal ratio is expected to decline from 0.94 to 0.71, and from 1.36 to 0.87 for hardwoods. Price projections are sensitive to growth per acre assumptions. The results in this paper are conservative in that they assume constant productivity levels in planted pine forest types.

Keywords: private ownership, timber supply, FIA survey, growth to removal, price.

Piva, R.J. 1994. Pulpwood production in the North-Central Region, 1993. Resour. Bull. NC-160. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central forest experiment Station. 39p.

ABSTRACT: Lake States pulpwood production increased to 9.4 million cords in 1993. Central States pulpwood production decreased by 19 percent - from 356 thousand cords in 1992 to 288 thousand cords in 1993. Plains States pulpwood production was 114 thousand cords. Pulpwood production is shown by county and species group for Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.

Keywords: pulpwood, Missouri, cords North Central.

Rosson, J.F., Jr. 1992. The woody biomass resource of major tree taxa for the Midsouth States. Resour. Bull. SO-166. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 52 p.

ABSTRACT: Fresh and dry biomass estimates of major trees in seven Midsouth States by forest type, ownership, species, stand basal area, tree class, diameter, and height are tabulated. Information is presented for total tree, hole, and crown components.

Keywords: Forest inventory, forest land, green weight, large-scale sample, regional inventory.

Spencer, J.S., Jr., S.M. Roussopoulos, and R.A. Massengale. 1992. Missouri's forest resource, 1989: an analysis. Resour. Bull. NC- 139. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 84 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1989 the fourth Missouri forest inventory found 14.0 million acres of forest land, of which 13.4 million acres (96 percent) is timberland. Growing-stock volume increased from 6.5 to 9.0 billion cubic feet between 1972 and 1989. Analysis and statistics on forest area, timber volume, growth, removals, mortality, and projections are presented.

Keywords: area, volume, growth, removals, mortality.

Stratton, D.P., M. Howell, and R. Romedy. 1998. Mississippi's timber industry-an assessment of timber product output and use, 1995. Resour. Bull. SRS-29.Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 23 p.

ABSTRACT: In 1995, roundwood output from Mississippi's forests totaled 1.0 billion cubic feet. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers was 357 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residue was used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 493 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 454 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 63 million cubic feet. There were 105 primary processing plants operating in Mississippi in 1995. Receipts totaled 878 million cubic feet.

Keywords: Pulpwood residues, roundwood saw logs, veneer logs, wood movement.

Vissage, J.S.,and K.L. Duncan. 1990. Forest Statistics for Tennessee Counties-1989. Resource Bull. SO-148. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 72 p.

ABSTRACT: Tabulates forest resource information from a new inventory of the counties of Tennessee.

Keywords: Area, volume, forest type, stand size, ownership.

Willits, S., R.J. Barbour, et. al. 1996. The Colville study: wood utilization for
ecosystem management-Preliminary results of study of product potential from small-diameter stands. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-559. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 11p.

ABSTRACT: The Colville Study was developed in 1994 to identify and evaluate a series of management options for achieving ecosystem objectives in dense stands of small-diameter trees while also producing wood products. The Colville National Forest selected the Rocky II Timber Sale as an example of this type of stand that needed management to achieve the following goals: (1) create late successional forest structure, (2) decrease forest health risk from fire, insects, and disease, (3) improve wildlife habitat by providing large green trees and snags, and (4) improve stand aesthetics by decreasing stand density.
The Colville Study was divided into four technical focus areas: Silviculture and Ecology, Forest Operations, Timber Conversion, and Economics. Results of each technical focus area indicate that (1) vegetative management activities are necessary to achieve the ecosystem goals, (2) there are alternative harvesting systems for removing the timber in an ecologically sound manner but costs need to be considered, (3) both species and material size are important in the recovery of wood products, and (4) financial analysis needs to incorporate all of these factors and many more to effectively evaluate the relative merchantability of different types of treatments.

Keywords: ecosystem, small-diameter, products, ecology, Silviculture.

MARKETS / ECONOMICS

Araman, P.A. 1987. Eastern United States hardwood sawtimber resources and export potential. In: Proceedings of SOFEW/MWFE Joint Annual Meeting. Asheville, N.C.

ABSTRACT: To look at the export potential of the Eastern hardwood sawtimber resources, including the Southern and Northern regions, hardwood resource data were compiled from USDA Forest Service state resource evaluation reports on a set of select export species. The species are the select oaks, yellow birch, hard maple, black walnut, black cherry, and the ashes. These species were chosen on the basis of their importance to the export market. Resource data are presented on standing hardwood sawtimber (inventory, growth, and removals) of the select export species, and on all hardwood sawtimber. Estimates of standing sawtimber for 1985 are presented along with projections for 1990,1995, and 2000 for the Eastern United States and the Northern and Southern regions.
The relative export potential of the hardwood resources by state was determined by the Preferred Available eXport species (PAX) ranking system. In this system, we first order the first 25 states by total quantity of select export species. Next, we evaluate these 25 states with an Export Index formula. The formula uses data on the quantity and quality of the standing sawtimber in the select export species. A premium is placed on select oak sawtimber because about two-thirds of the hardwood product exports are oak. A premium also is placed on grade 1 log sawtimber material because many of these logs are exportable; and if processed in the United States, they contain sizeable amounts of exportable high-grade lumber or veneer. The PAX rankings are presented for the top 25 states in eight groupings. Note that other factors could be considered that could change these results.

Keywords: Hardwood exports, sawtimber resources, select hardwood species, sawtimber quality

Busby, R.L., and R.A. Kluender. 1993. Management costs associated with various reproduction cutting methods. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 253-254.

ABSTRACT: Management-cost data were gathered for various reproduction cutting methods as part of the ecosystem management research in the Ouachita Mountains. Costs were gathered on both traditional and nontraditional reproduction cutting strategies in an attempt to determine the cost-effectiveness of each management strategy and to estimate the resource requirements for wide-scale implementation of each method. Preliminary results indicate that sale preparation costs are higher for low volume-per-acre cutting methods.

Keywords: management, cost, preparation.

Bush R.J., and P.A. Araman. 1991. A comparison of market needs to the species and quality composition of the eastern hardwood resource. Proceedings: Society of American Foresters National Convention. San Francisco, California.

ABSTRACT: Many markets for hardwood lumber have experienced growth in recent years. Eastern and Central hardwood lumber production reached an estimated 11.2 billion board feet in 1988, a twenty year high. Wood furniture, flooring, and exports have also experienced growth in the last ten years. During the same period, annual growth on eastern hardwood forests has exceeded annual removals. However, species and grade compositions do not match demand. These differences can affect timber harvest and the availability of raw material.

Keywords: Hardwood, exports, sawtimber quality, log grade, annual growth.

Idassi, J., J. Huarachi, P. Winistorfer, and B. English. 1998. Economic impacts of the forestry and forest products industries on the Tennessee economy. Tennessee Forest Products Center. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Report no. 5.
http://web.utk.edu/~tfpc/ 10p.

ABSTRACT: An impact analysis to examine the relative importance of the forestry related sectors to the overall Tennessee economy, utilizing the IMPLAN database and model, was conducted. The 1994 data used for this study were the most recent available. The Tennessee input-output economic model results indicated the Tennessee forest products industry directly employed 69,811 people and paid about $2.3 billion in wages in 1994. The industry generated directly an industry output of about $9.1 billion, and value-added totaled over $3.9 billion. When the forestry sector of the Tennessee economy produces products or services to meet demand, the overall State economy is affected in three ways: directly, indirectly and with induced effects. The total effect on the state economy is the sum of these three separate effects. Therefore, in 1994, relative to other Tennessee industries, the total effect of the forest products sector was 162,886 jobs, over $3.5 billion in wages and salaries, $15.5 billion of industrial output, and over $ 7.5 billion of value-added.

Keywords: value-added, Tennessee forest products industries, economy.

Kluender, R A., D.A. Lortz, and B.J. Stokes. 1993. Production time, total costs and residual damage at varying harvest intensities. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 229-240.

ABSTRACT: Six stands were harvested by either clearcut, shelterwood, or single-tree selection methods. Harvest productivity was evaluated in 2 consecutive years (1991 and 1992) for each harvesting method. The single-tree selection harvests consisted of thinnings in even-aged stands as an initial basal area reduction cut required to convert the stand to uneven-aged structure. Harvest intensity (percentage of basal area removed) ranged from 31 to 100.
The same contractor used two skidders (one grapple, one choker) and production chain saws to harvest all six tracts. Harvested sites were similar in slope, average diameter at breast height (d.b.h.)and preharvest number of stems by d.b.h.
In 1991, total felling time (including walk, acquire, fell, and limb-top times) was inversely related to harvesting intensity. In 1992, total felling time averaged highest under the single-tree selection method and lowest under the shelterwood method. When these averages were adjusted for differences in stand characteristics, the inverse relationship between total time and percentage of basal area removed at harvest (harvesting intensity) was present for both years.
In both years, total cycle time (including travel-empty, bunch-building, travel-loaded, and deck times) was higher, and volume per cycle was lower for the cable skidders than for the grapple skidders. After adjusting for differences between stands, total cycle time was inversely related to harvest intensity.
Factors affecting total felling time (in decreasing order of importance) were d.b.h. of harvested stems, distance between trees, and harvest intensity. Factors affecting total cycle time for skidding (in decreasing order of importance) were travel distance, skidders type, number of stems per cycle, harvest intensity, and volume per cycle.
The total percentage of stand area trafficked was lowest for the single-tree stands. The single-tree selection method (in 1992) had the largest and only significant increase in bulk density in the skid trails. Residual tree damage (trees/acre) was greater for the single-tree selection method than the shelterwood method.

Keywords: single-tree harvest, residual tree, shelterwood, clearcut, skidders, damage, cost.

Kluender, R., D. Lortz, W. McCoy, B. Stokes, and J. Klepac. 1995. Harvesting profitability variability by removal intensity and trees size. Proceedings: Council on Forest Engineering; 18th Annual Meeting. Cashiers, North Carolina. June 5-8. 173-186 pp.

ABSTRACT: Sixteen stands were Harvested at intensities (proportion of basal area removed) ranging from 0.27 to 1.00. Logging contractors used chain saws and rubber tired skidders. Harvested sites were similar in slope and tree size.
Harvest time per tree was inversely related to harvest intensity and directly related to tree size. Factors affecting total skidding time were skidding distance, skidders type, harvest intensity, load volume and number of stems.
Harvesting profitability per 100 cubic feet was near zero when removing trees averaging less than eight inches DBH. Harvest intensity had the greatest influence on profitability in small diameter timber. Harvest profitability was greatest when removing large trees at high levels of harvesting intensity.

Key Words: Harvest costs, productivity, profit, harvest modeling, economics.
Overdevest, C. and G.P. Green. 1994. Forest dependence and community well-being: a segmented market approach. Society and Natural Resources. 8:111-113.

ABSTRACT: Forestry activities, such as timber production and processing, are important economic activities in many rural communities. Yet the research on the relationship between forest dependence and community economic well-being is inconclusive. This article examines the relationship between forest dependence and county per capita income and poverty in rural Georgia. Forest dependence is conceptualized according to Averitt's theory of the dual economy. Core dependence, in other words dependence on well-capitalized pulp and paper firms, is expected to affect county-level economic well-being differently than dependence on periphery forest industry or high timberland concentrations. Regression analyses show that core forest industries are positively related to county per capita income, while periphery industries have no significant effect and timberland concentration is negatively related to per capita income and positively related to the poverty rate.

Keywords: core, dual economy, periphery, rural development, uneven development.

Phelps, J.E., and R.C. Smith. 1985. Wood-using industries: their contribution to the Missouri economy. School of forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife. University of Missouri-Columbia. EC-956. 19p.

ABSTRACT: A total of 1,896 firms processed Missouri-grown and harvested timber in 1983. They employed 20,927 persons and paid wages of $253 million. They purchased wood raw materials that cost $355 million and other goods and services for $406 million. The products they sold were valued at $1,343 million and the total value added by processing was $582 million.
The paper products sector, which uses pulp and paper produced in other states, included 143 firms that employed 12,300 people and paid wages of $230 million in 1982. Paper processors bought goods and services valued at $869 million and their products sold for $1,551 million. Value added was $680 million.
If a portion of other related activities, such as construction, transportation, and marketing, are considered in terms of value added, timber-based activity in Missouri in 1983 is valued at an estimated $1.8 billion.
In total in 1983, 2,000 firms with 33,000 employees who earned $483 million in wages produced goods valued at almost $3 billion.

Keywords: value added, economics, Missouri, employees, wages, services.

Wiedenbeck, J.K. and P.A. Araman. 1993. Possible demands for eastern hardwoods resulting from harvest restrictions in the Pacific Northwest. Forest Products Journal.
43(10): 51-57.

ABSTRACT: Efforts to conserve the habitat of the northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest have placed softwood timber supplies under a great deal of pressure and driven up the price of softwood lumber. Hardwoods could meet some of the demand for products that have previously been manufactured from softwood species. Hardwood structural lumber may soon become an economically feasible alternative to softwood lumber. Oriented strand board is likely to gain a greater share of the structural panel market. Opportunities also exist for treated hardwood lumber and treated hardwood shakes and shingles. Hard-woods might also be used to make increasing proportions of many secondary wood products such as moulding, millwork, and flooring.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, hardwoods, oriented strand board, lumber.

PUBLIC / SOCIAL ATTITUDES

Bliss, J.C., S.K. Nepal, R.T. Brooks, and M.D. Larsen. 1994. Forestry community or granfalloon. Journal of Forestry. 92(9): 6-10.

ABSTRACT: Are forest owners members of the forestry community, or is the community a granfalloon? Insofar as they control so much of the nation's forest resources, forest owners certainly "belong" to the forestry community. However, in their forestry knowledge and opinions they mirror the general public. The lines between forestry "advocates" and "adversaries" are far less distinct than may be commonly assumed and apparently do not depend on forest ownership.
Our Tennessee Valley region results are consistent with those found in two previous Alabama surveys (Bliss 1993a, 1993 b) and with results of recent research in Pennsylvania (Luloff et al. 1993). Perceived environmental effects are the litmus test of public approval in forestry issues. Environmental concerns temper views toward forestry practices, private property rights, and forest-based economic development. Most forest owners and non-owners desire a balance between property rights and environmental regulations, which ensures environmental protection.
When and where forestry is perceived to be environmentally friendly, it will enjoy public support. Opposition to individual forest practices is due, in part, to lack of knowledge about forests and their management. The public knows little about forestry, and it doesn't like what it doesn't know. Continuing to concentrate on education efforts on forest owners alone will do little to improve the acceptance of forest management by the American public.

Keywords: public, forestry, forest owners, community, Tennessee Valley, education.

Bliss, J.C., S.K. Nepal, R.T. Brooks, and M.D. Larsen. 1997. In the mainstream: environmental attitudes of mid-south forest owners. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 21(1):37-43.

ABSTRACT: A 1992 telephone survey of households in seven mid-South states provided data for comparing the opinions of NIPF owners with those of the general public. Topics explored included traditional forest management practices, governmental regulation of tree cutting to protect environmental values, and trade-offs between environmental protection, private property rights, and economic development. In each of these areas the views of NIPF owners were found not to differ significantly from those of the general public. A wide spread desire for environmental protection tempers views toward forest practices, forest-based economic development, and private property rights. The relationships between NIPF owners' demographic characteristics, ownership activities, and opinions were explored. Study results challenged common assumptions about NIPF owners, questioned the effectiveness of existing forestry education efforts, and argue for a stronger, more explicitly environmental orientation in all forestry activities.

Keywords: public, forestry, forest owners, NIPF, environment, education, economic.

Campbell, S.M., and D.B. Kittredge. 1996. Ecosystem-based management on multiple NIPF ownerships. Journal of Forestry. 94(2):24-29.

ABSTRACT: Both professional foresters and the general public are increasing interested in an ecosystem-based approach to forest management. This emerging interest raises the question of how such an approach might apply in a landscape that is dominated by numerous nonindustrial private forest (NIPF)ownerships. This article reports on the results of a pilot study of a voluntary incentive-based program in one town in western Massachusetts.
The chief criterion of success in the short term will be the number of neighborhoods landowners, acres and natural resource consultants involved; and whether a change in awareness or understanding of options has occurred. In the nine months since the programs inception, two Stewardship Neighborhoods have begun that involve eight landowner families, 457 contiguous acres, and three private consultants. The cost sharing incentive to develop voluntary opportunities for collaboration imposes no obligations, nor does it remove any landowner rights. We believe this approach of combining education, information, and incentives should be investigated as we attempt to encourage management of forested ecosystems in a landscape dominated by NIPF ownerships.

Keywords: Nonindustrial private landowner, NIPF, cost share, incentive, ecosystem, forest management.
English, B.C., C.D. Bell, G.R. Wells, and R.K. Roberts. 1997. Stewardship incentives in forestry: Participation factors in Tennessee. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 21(1): 5-10.

ABSTRACT: The likely effect of cost-share incentives on participation in Tennessee's Forest Stewardship Program was estimated and contributing factors were identified. Surveys were mailed to 4,000 nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners, and a logit model was developed to examine economic, physical, and behavior factors which affect the landowner participation decision. Data collected indicates the majority of landowners are concerned with water quality and wildlife habitat in addition to timber enhancements. Model results indicate that attitudes, experience, and knowledge of forestry programs may outweigh monetary incentives (50, 65, and 75% cost share) in the participation decision.

Keywords: Cost-share, Tennessee, forest stewardship, incentives, nonindustrial private forest landowners ( NIPF ).

Gramann, J.H. and Rudis, V.A. 1993. Effects of Hardwood retention, season of year, and landform on the perceived scenic beauty of forest plots in the Ouachita Mountains. Paper presented at the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment Conditions and Preliminary Findings. Hot Springs, AR. October 26-27, 1993. 223-227 pp.

ABSTRACT: Results from a study of the within-stand visual effects of alternative reproduction cutting methods on 20 experimental plots in the Ouachita National Forest are presented. Treatments varied in their level of hardwood retention from complete suppression of hardwoods to retention of 30 ft2/acre of basal area. Using color transparency film, plots were photo-sampled two growing seasons after treatments were imposed. The color slides were rated for their scenic beauty by students at Texas A&M University. Results showed that perceived scenic beauty increased with the level of hardwood retention and that summer, fall, and spring views were preferred over those taken during the winter. Ridgetop plots on north-facing slopes were rated as significantly more scenic thin plots on gentle-slope north-facing positions.

Keywords: Scenic, Ouachita National Forest, hardwood, reproduction cutting.

Harrison, B., D.H. Newman, and G. Macheski. 1997. The Georgia public and its forest: Attitudes and knowledge regarding forest resource use. (Yet unpublished).

ABSTRACT: Survey of the Georgia public. The results show that the general public has a fairly positive image of people within and associated with the forest products industry. A majority also have a knowledge of and give support for more forest management practices than we had anticipated. Although this study points to some possible areas that should be addressed by those in forest industry, it appears that those employed in the forestry sector have begun to realize that informing and involving the public is necessary not only for good public relations and improved community cooperation, but also for the long term maintenance of their ability to mange.

Keywords: survey, Georgia, public, forest industry.

Herrick, T.A., and V.A. Rudis. 1993. Visitor preference for forest scenery in the Ouachita National Forest. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 103-116

ABSTRACT: The majority of forest visitors interviewed between June through October 1991 and April through October 1992 preferred forest scenery that was "undisturbed", contained a "variety of natural features", or was associated with "natural" or "beauty" descriptions. Few respondents preferred "younger tree species with open areas." Results suggest that undisturbed conditions are important along with vegetation management to support a variety of natural features. Slight differences are noted when examining preferences by respondents' sex, age class, education level, principal recreation activity, month visited, and sites where interviewed. The order of questions appeared to affect the respondents' forest scenery descriptions. Interviews were conducted as part of an onsite survey involving a larger recreation-user study (CUSTOMER survey) for sites among four USDA Forest Service Ouachita National Forest ranger districts. Recommendations are made for using CUSTOMER survey data in future forest scenery preference research.

Keywords: visitor interviews, forest scenery, natural, beauty, survey.

Overdevest, C., D.B.K. English. 1993. Understanding people and natural resource relationships: Ouachita National Forest timber purchasers and changing timber harvest policy. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 241-252.

ABSTRACT: Seventeen woods workers addressed the Ouachita National Forest's 1967 shift from uneven-aged management to even-aged management and the 1988-89 shift to uneven-aged management of the forest. Respondents' unique views, values, and stakes are heard, and emergent similarities and differences among them are analyzed in a qualitative study. While a majority of 17 participants criticized the Ouachita National Forest's recent transition to uneven-aged management other study participants lauded the Ouachita National Forest's move to uneven-aged management. In the following pages, the variety of ways in which the woods workers perceived and valued the use and management of timber is reported. Studying perceptions and values regarding timber management aids us in generating a better understanding of people and natural resource relationships.

Keywords: Harvest method, even-aged management, uneven-aged management, ecosystem management, loggers, natural resource, people, views, values.

Rudis, V.A., J.H. Gramann, and T.A. Herrick. 1993. Esthetics evaluation. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 202-211.

ABSTRACT: An analysis of summer visual attributes and an overview of ongoing scenic quality research within selected shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.)
-hardwood stands in the Ouachita and Ozark National forests are presented. Within-stand visual attributes were reported prior to even-aged stand-level (Phase 11) treatment for twelve 40-acre stands in the north, east, and south regions and for plot-level (pre-Phase 1) visual attributes for twenty 0.5-acre plots examined two growing seasons after disturbance. No differences in visual attributes before treatment were apparent between 0.0 to 2.8 feet and 2.9 to 5.5 feet aboveground. From the stand-level study, there were no significant differences among regions but there were significant differences among stands and sample points. The plot-level study, a randomized complete block design with four blocks or landform positions and uneven-aged treatments, revealed differences by distance zone above ground for disturbed plots. Greater foliage and twig screening and reduced visual penetration in lower zone views were associated with increased overstory removal. Visual penetration was lower and foliage and twig screening was higher in low elevation landform positions compared with high elevation landform positions. Insight from both studies suggests that a significant difference between viewing zones in summer may be suitable as an index of recent stand disturbance.

Keywords: landform, visual attributes, scenic quality, pine-hardwood.

Weber, L.J. 1991. The social responsibility of land ownership: Ethics and profit gain new definitions. Journal of Forestry. 89(4): 12-15, 17, 25.

ABSTRACT: Following a review of the influences on how we make decisions of land use, the author suggest that we might want to make use of the evolving concept of social responsibility (within a framework of an emphasis on basic human rights) and that we might want to use it in a way that begins to bring elements of a new social value system right into the heart of contemporary discussion of economic policy and land use policy. The concept might allow us to move away from the emphasis on individual rights toward an emphasis on the common good without having to invent a whole new ethical vocabulary for the American Public.

Keywords: private ownership, social responsibility, society, stewardship.

Williams, R.A. and R.A. Kluender. 1997. Perspective of Arkansas' Non-industrial private forest land owners concerning their forested property. (Unpublished)

ABSTRACT: Today's non-industrial private forest (WF) owners must deal with a variety of problems and issues that were uncommon just a few years ago. Management issues, such as best management practices and private property rights; environmental issues, such as endangered species and land stewardship; and economic issues, such as capital gains tax, forestry incentive programs, and property tax must be considered if the overall operation is to be successful and survive.
To find out what Arkansas' NIPF owners think about these and other issues, personnel from the Arkansas Forest Resources Center and the University of Arkansas at Monticello and Fayetteville conducted a survey. The study was separated into a series of focus groups and a mail survey. The focus groups were made up of non-industrial private forest owners from four counties in Arkansas. The mail survey included the same four counties and eight additional counties. All of the counties used in the study were randomly selected and represented all parts of the state.
The focus group participants identified several major areas of concern to NIPF owners. These concerns included timber theft, trash dumping and improper payments for timber sold from their lands. Regional differences were observed in the use and knowledge regarding management practices, incentive programs and environmental concerns.
The survey results echoed the same theme of property rights as all participants believed they had a right to use their land in any fashion. However, most of the participants were not aware of the Endangered Species Act or Clean Water Act as it applies to private landowners. Finally, most participants considered themselves middle-ground environmentalists. They defined the term to mean land stewards who have concerns for the environment but are able to use the natural resources present on their lands. The information obtained during this study provide many insights into the behavior and attitudes of NIPF owners throughout Arkansas. The study has set in motion a series of landowner workshops that have been attended by over 500 participants.

Keywords: Non-industrial private forest (NIPF), survey, Arkansas.

Williams, R.A., D.E. Voth, and C. Hitt. 1996. Arkansas' NIPF landowners' opinions and attitudes regarding management and use of forested property. In: Symposium on Nonindustrial Private Forests: Learning from the Past, Prospects for the Future. February 18-20, 1996. Washington, D.C. USA. 230-237.

ABSTRACT: The focus group sessions provided good insight into the NIPF owners of Arkansas. Regional differences were identified as to land use preference and use of incentive programs. The Delta and Southwest regions were interested in growing and selling trees. They also used incentive programs to help them establish and grow their trees. The Ouachita and Ozark regions preferred grazing and recreation uses on their forest-lands. All participants felt that they were land stewards who used their land resources tempered with environmental sensitivity. Furthermore, they do not want land use regulations restricting activities on their lands. Some major concerns listed by all participants included trespassing, trash dumping, and timber theft. This NIPF owner study might be useful for developing landowner educational and extension programs and future research efforts that could better address the concerns and interests of Arkansas NIPF owners.

Keywords: Non-industrial private forest (NIPF), survey, Arkansas, stewardship.

Williams, R.A., T.L. Walkingstick, D.E. Voth, J. Earl, and C.P. Hitt. A characterization of the Non-industrial private forest landowners of Arkansas. (Not yet published)

ABSTRACT: The results reported here are based upon a mail survey that was sent to 2,400 forest landowners in a random sample of 12 Arkansas counties. Using standard procedures for mailed surveys, using a questionnaire that was designed from the previous one and from input received at four focus groups held in the four regions of Arkansas. Nearly 870 usable questionnaires were returned. Non-industrial private forest landowners held a high regard for being good stewards of the land, liked the rural environment and wanted to provide wildlife habitat. About half of the respondents have sold trees in the past and fewer than half plan to sell sometime in the future. The Coastal Plain region had the most owners who sell trees and manage their forest lands while the Ozark region had more landowners who owned forest lands for reasons other than income from their trees.

Keywords: survey, Arkansas, NIPF, Ozark region, forest.

Wolfe, K.L. and G. Chambers. 1995. Wooded landowner study. Southwest Missouri Resource Conservation and Development, INC. Prepared by: The Gallup Organization, Princeton, New Jersey. 27p.

ABSTRACT: The Gallup Organization (Gallup) has been commissioned by the Southwest Missouri Resource Conservation and Development, Inc. (Southwest Missouri RCD) to determine attitudes among landowners in terms of the primary reasons for owning their land, services used for their land, as well as what differences if any exist among landowners in lake counties and non-lake counties. Following are some interesting highlights of the study.
· Over four out of five (82 %) landowners viewed "beauty or nature appreciation" as being a somewhat or very important reason to own their wooded land.
· The primary activities respondents have performed on their land within the past ten years were planting trees, improving wildlife habitat, and cutting timber.
· More than one-third (37 %) of landowners intend to plant trees on their land, and almost two-thirds (65 %) of landowners stated that if provided with trees, they would plant them.
· Surprisingly over three out of five (61 %) landowners are completely unaware of any type of cost-share assistance. However, if cost-share assistance were available, nearly one-third of respondents would use it.
· Respondents tended to not seek out management advice or use any services. However, landowners who did use services ranked wildlife management assistance and forest
management practices as their most preferred services.
· Approximately one out of ten (11 %) landowners would be willing to pay for forest management services.

Keywords: management, landowner, survey, attitudes, cost-share.

RECREATION and TOURISM

Pona, J.S. 1996. 1996-2001 Missouri statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan (SCORP). Report to: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of State Parks, March 13, 1996. The SYNERGY Group Marketeam Associates, Inc. 92p.

ABSTRACT: This report, part of Missouri's State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) for 1996-2001, reviews and analyzes information relating to state and nationwide outdoor recreation trends, and projects recreation needs for the State of Missouri through the year 2001.
The Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) is a federal requirement which historically has enabled states to receive and administer federal Land and Water Conservation Funds (LWCF). In addition to this specific purpose, Missouri has used the SCORP as a planning tool for state outdoor recreation programs.
In October, 1995, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources' Division of State parks, commissioned a consultant team to conduct research for the 1996-2001 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) and report the results. Identified are 11 primary needs, which range from the expansion of facilities to the education of outdoor recreation users in land ethics.

Keywords: recreation, outdoor, Missouri Department of Natural Resources.

SILVICULTURE and HARVEST PRACTICES

Beck D.E. and R.M. Hooper. 1986. Development of a southern Appalachian hardwood stand after clearcutting. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(3): 168-172.

ABSTRACT: A mixed hardwood stand composed of 53% oak (Quercus spp.), 33% yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and 14% other species, was clearcut in 1963. Twenty years later a developing, even-aged stand of predominantly sprout origin is dominated by yellow-poplar, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.), and sweet birch (Betula lenta L.). The oaks are a minor and decreasing component.
This and other studies suggest that clearcuts on good sites in the Southern Appalachians will be dominated by aggressive intolerant species-mainly yellow-poplar. If a larger oak component is desired, measures to ensure strong advance reproduction and lessen competition from prolific sprouters such as red maple will be necessary.

Keywords: mixed hardwood, Appalachians, oak, maple, yellow-poplar, birch, black locust.

Beck, D.E. 1991. The shelterwood method. A research perspective. In: Proceedings of the Genetics/Silviculture workshop. Wenatchee, Washington. 252-258.

ABSTRACT: The fundamental purpose of the shelterwood method is to get a new crop of trees established before the old one is completely removed. Stands created by shelterwood cutting are usually even-aged, but there are variants in which the stands have two age classes or have trees ranging over several decades in age. The number and intensity of cuts, interval between cuts , and treatment of the understory and forest floor can be varied to achieve a wide range of environmental effects in both space and time. It can also be used to create a wide range in visual effects.
The shelterwood is an extremely flexible method that can be used to solve a wide range of regeneration problems. Practically all the major species of this country are amenable to its use and many demand it. In fact, it may be at least a partial answer for some of the failures now being experienced when planting following clearcutting. Given the option of maintaining two-aged stands, it has the potential to incorporate esthetic, wildlife, and other management needs into a regeneration method for species that are intolerant or intermediate in tolerance. As should be very clear from the examples given in this paper, successful application depends onsite-specific prescriptions based on a thorough understanding of the ecological

characteristics and reproductive requirements of the desired and competing species.

KEYWORDS: shelterwood, reproduction, esthetic, wildlife.

Bey, C.F. 1964. Advanced oak reproduction grows fast after clearcutting. Journal of Forestry. 62(5): 339-340.

ABSTRACT: In the spring of 1936, two 1-acre oak-hickory plots were clearcut on the Shawnee National Forest in southern Illinois. Twenty-seven years later, the study plots were fully stocked with oaks, hickory, black walnut, and yellow-poplar trees, sapling size and larger. The trees grew rapidly and were straight stemmed. Most of the oak "seedlings" that developed after the cutting were sprouts from older root systems. Where desirable advance oak reproduction is present, clearcutting will result in a high percentage of rapid-growing, straight-stemmed oaks.

KEYWORDS: oak, hickory, black walnut, clearcut, Illinois, advanced reproduction

Bradshaw, F.J., 1992. Quantifying edge effect and patch size for multiple-use silviculture - a discussion paper. Forest Ecology and Management. 48: 249-264.

ABSTRACT: An argument is presented that the essential difference between even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture ties in the proportion of the patch that is influenced by edge effect. These edge effects may extend well beyond the normally accepted boundary between even-aged and uneven-aged stands. Examples are presented to show that there is not one static edge effect but many dynamic edge effects and that the differences between even-aged and uneven-aged stands are represented by a continuum rather than there being a distinct division between them. In the continuing debate on appropriate forest management practices, the differences between even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture have been oversimplified and are often represented in their extremes. In this paper it is argued that research to quantify the magnitude and the extent of these edge effects is necessary to provide the essential data to design patch sizes to meet specific multiple-use management objectives. The integration of these data would provide the basis for objective trade-offs between various forest values and for the objective evaluation of the long-term impact of different silvicultural practices.

Keywords: silviculture, even-aged, uneven-aged, patch, edge effects.

Della-Bianca, L., and D.E. Beck. 1985. Selection Management in Southern Appalachian Hardwoods. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 9(3): 191-196.

ABSTRACT: A woodland tract of southern Appalachian cove hardwoods and mixed oak has been managed under the selection system of silviculture since 1946. Simply cutting in all commercial diameter classes (i.e., 6.0 inches and larger), as was the practice during the first 24 years, failed to develop enough desirable saplings and poles to maintain the system. After 1970, herbicide treatment of undesirable, tolerant understory species in openings created by, removal of large trees or groups of trees has improved the status of desirable saplings. Although long-term costs of management and yields are uncertain, the study suggests that creation of larger openings and treatment of undesirable understory species offers at least a chance for success with the selection system in southern Appalachian hardwoods.

Keywords: Appalachian, hardwoods, silviculture, oak, selection, openings, herbicide, understory.

Gammon, A.D., V.J. Rudolph, and J.L. Arend. 1960. Regeneration following clearcutting of oak during a seed year. Journal of Forestry. 58: 711-715.

ABSTRACT: Red and White Oaks, (Quercus rubra L. and Q. alba L.), when growing on good sites, produce high quality hardwood timber. Because of the value of high quality oak, forest managers are interested in maintaining these species on sites capable of producing quality trees. However, on the better hardwood sites, oak reproduction is usually out-numbered by lighter-seeded species such as American elm (Ulmus americana L.), Sugar and red maples (Acer saccharum Marsh. and A. rubrum L.) and white ash (Fraxintus americana L.), as well as by less desirable species such as sassafras (Sassafras albidium (Nutt.) Nees), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), and witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana L.).
A study was made of reproduction following clearcutting of an excellent 45-acre oak stand in 1950 in southern Michigan. The stand composition before cutting was primarily red and white oak, with lesser volumes of sugar maple, yellow-poplar, elm, white ash, and red maple. The reproduction was examined 2, 3, 5, and 7 years after logging.
Clearcutting of this oak stand has been followed by adequate reproduction to form a fully stocked new forest stand. However, the composition of the new stand bears little resemblance to that of the previous stand. The important species forming the new stand are white ash, sugar maple, American elm, black cherry and red maple, in that order. The small number of oaks now present occur in clumps of sprout origin, and their distribution in the stand is poor.
The clearcutting method has not resulted in obtaining adequate oak reproduction in the new stand on this area..
Keywords: Clearcutting, oak, maple, ash, hardwood.

Guldin, J.M. and J.D. Hodges. 1991. Uneven-aged silvicultural systems. The Consultant. Summer 1991. 10-12.

ABSTRACT: In the current wave of public concern about clearcutting, the selection method of uneven-aged silviculture has been consistently advocated as an alternative. Its advantages over clearcutting include improved cash flow, production of high-quality sawtimber and better aesthetics. As a result, many foresters with little or no education or experience in uneven-aged silviculture have been eagerly imposing the selection method in forest stands across the nation. However, in many cases the stands are really being managed by uninformed, mistaken or wishful intent rather than by strict attention to acknowledged uneven-aged standards. This paper presents guidelines for the application of uneven-aged silviculture. It provides a good comparison between uneven-aged and even-aged silviculture. It presents concerns that forest are being mismanaged as uneven-aged when in reality they are even-aged and inevitably it is the sustainability of the forest which will then suffer. This is a hidden dilemma, because the failure of selective cutting may not become apparent for several decades. Differences in interpretation of these guidelines among foresters may lead to debate about the importance of achieving these standards - which is encouraged. If systems that deviate--from these guidelines are proposed as uneven-aged, the proposers might do well to examine whether the deviations are not resulting from an effort to retain some semblance of even-agedness for convenience, operability or other non-silvicultural constraints. The ultimate failure of a poorly-grounded, uneven-aged system may not occur for several decades - by which time the future potential of the stand is irretrievably sacrificed. Foresters attempting to practice uneven-aged silviculture can check their prescriptions against these guidelines, and might want to consider adjusting their operations to ensure that the guidelines are achieved.

Keywords: Silviculture, even-aged, unevenaged, selection, selective.

Gullison, R.E. And J.J. Hardner. 1993. The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosqu Chimanes, Bolivia. Forest Ecology and Management. 59: 1-14.

ABSTRACT: The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosque Chi-manes, Bolivia. Selective harvesting in tropical forests has been shown to cause considerable damage to residual trees in stands that have relatively high densities of commercial trees. To complement existing studies, we measured forest damage caused by the selective harvesting of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla),a very low density species in the Bosque Chimanes, Bolivia. Secondary damage along main roads and skid trails accounted for most of the damage measured in the study site. Total damage was low (4.39% of the study area), but results from our simulation model suggested that damage could be decreased by up to 25% by requiring main roads and skid trails to be linear.
We used our simulation model to investigate the relationship between harvest intensity and forest damage. At low harvest intensities, most forest damage occurs from the construction of main roads. As harvest intensity increases, secondary damage from skid trails and tree felling comes to dominate forest damage. Overall, less damage will result to the forest for a given harvest volume if the harvest area is reduced and harvest intensity increased. Additional benefits to increasing harvest intensity are that re-entry into the logged site can be delayed, allowing the forest more time to recover, and regeneration of light-demanding species such as mahogany can be enhanced. The main impediment to increasing the harvest intensity in selective harvesting operations in Latin America is the lack of international markets for lesser known species, although there is some local and national demand.

Keywords: selection harvest, road, light, density, intensity.

Hannah, P., M. Kihn, and D. Kimmett. 1981. Some impacts of whole-tree harvesting under different silvicultural methods. Northern Logger. 29(11): 60-61 and 82-84.

Whole-tree harvesting is being used more widely to obtain wood fiber from our forests. In whole-tree harvesting the trees are felled with a chain saw or by mobile felling machines and hauled in-tact to a landing. At the landing saw logs can be removed and the remainder of the tree chipped and blown into trailer vans. Chips so derived are suitable for electric generation, for heating, or for manufactured products. Quality of chips for more exacting product requirements can be improved by removing bark, limbs and leaves before chipping.
Whole-tree harvesting involves removal of most of the above ground biomass from a forest site. This method of intensive forest harvesting raises concern about long-term soil nutrient status, soil compaction, soil erosion and water quality, and the long-term production potential of the site.
This papers primary emphasis is on the impacts to regeneration and the residual stand.

Keywords: residual stand, regeneration, whole-tree harvesting, fiber, chipped.

Hannah, P.R. 1987. Regeneration methods for Oaks. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 4(2): 97-101.

ABSTRACT: Oaks, one of the most abundant species groups in the eastern United States, are difficult to regenerate in the time, place, and abundance desired. Regeneration is hampered by insect damage to acorns, consumption of acorns by animals, and competition by other more shade tolerant vegetation. With animal populations managed at tolerable levels, adequate stocking of oak seedlings can be accomplished with most conventional regeneration methods. With the clearcut and seed-tree method the harvest must be timed with a good seed year. Oak stump sprouts will also contribute to the regeneration. The one-cut shelterwood method can work if there is adequate advanced regeneration. Two- or three-cut shelterwood should work well with about 60% crown cover in high shade or 60% stocking after the first cut. The group selection method should also be effective if regeneration is released from above once established. The key with all these methods is to control competing vegetation, keeping the oaks dominant and free to grow; oaks like plenty of light. Once oak is well established and about 5 ft high, any overwood should be carefully removed to minimize seedling damage. If desired for esthetic, wildlife, or economic purposes, a light canopy cover can be retained as a reserve shelterwood. Management of oak requires intensive silviculture; casual treatment of stands at long intervals will seldom result in good regeneration.

Keywords: regeneration, oak, clearcut, shelterwood, selection, seed-tree, silviculture, stocking.

Hawley, R.C. and A.W. Goodspeed.1932. Selection cuttings for the small forest owner. New Haven: Yale University. Yale University : School of Forestry. Bulletin No. 35.

ABSTRACT: A large part of the forest land in Connecticut is held in connection with farms or country homes. Such properties usually contain from a few to two or three hundred acres of woodland. While there are in the State solid blocks of forest, often covering several thousand acres, such extensive holdings are not considered in this publication. Large blocks of forest ultimately should go to the State to be incorporated within its forest system, or to the occasional landowner who desires a relatively large forest property.
The problem of the small forest landowner is here discussed. His wooded area is an essential part of the holding, either because it is interspersed among the arable fields or because it is needed to round out an otherwise irregular boundary or to give the desired setting for the homestead. In fact, unless he confines himself to house lots, the owner of rural property will find possession of forest land well-nigh unescapable. This situation is a distinct advantage of rural life, although it creates responsibility for intelligent use of forest areas. In the past, to the detriment of the owner's best interests, the forest has been too often totally neglected or improperly handled.
This bulletin, from 1932, makes a clear case for the small woodland owner to apply the selection system of timber harvest rather than clearcutting. This paper should make clear that the debate surrounding the appropriateness of silvicultural systems is not new, and in fact continues to this day.

Keywords: selection cutting, clearcutting, small woodland owner, silvicultural systems.

Johnson, Paul S. 1997. The silviculture of upland Central Hardwoods: 25 years of change. In: Meyer, Dan A., ed. Proceedings: 25th Annual Hardwood Symposium; 1997 May 7-10; Cashiers, NC. Memphis,TN: National Hardwood Lumber Association: 17-44.

ABSTRACT: The silviculture of upland central hardwoods has largely followed an ecological model based on the manipulation of existing natural vegetation and a reliance on natural regeneration, rather than on an agronomic model based on intensive culture and the introduction of new genotypes. On publicly owned and industrial lands, growing high quality sawtimber has been emphasized. Exploitive high grading has characterized timber harvesting on nonindustrial privately-owned forests. On well-managed forests, intermediate cuttings in even-aged stands have been widely used to improve stand quality and to accelerate growth of the residual stand. Enduring silvicultural tools include polymorphic site index curves, and stocking charts and equations. Abandoned or declining practices on public lands include clearcutting and autonomous silvicultural decisions by forest managers. Evolving or reemerging practices include uneven-aged silviculture using single-tree and group selection methods, shelterwood methods that incorporate artificial regeneration, and irregular shelterwood methods. Evolving silvicultural tools include predictive regeneration models, acorn production models, and prescriptions for prescribed burning for oak regeneration.

Keywords: regeneration, silviculture, upland central hardwood, even-aged, uneven-aged.

Johnson, P.S. 1993. Sources of oak reproduction. In: Loftis, David L.; McGee Charles E., eds. Symposium proceedings: Oak regeneration: serious problems, practical recommendations; 1992 September 8-1 0;Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-84. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 112-131.

ABSTRACT: There are three juvenile growth forms of oak that silviculturists commonly term "reproduction": (1) seedlings, (2) seedling sprouts, and (3) stump sprouts. A seedling is a form that has not experienced shoot dieback. Seedlings become seedling sprouts by surviving shoot dieback and resprouting one or more times. Seedling sprouts may persist and accumulate for decades in xeric forests and sometimes in mesic and hydric forests that are recurrently burned, grazed, or otherwise disturbed. Stump sprouts arise from the stumps of cut overstory trees after a thinning or final harvest and sometimes from the bases of fire-killed trees. When present before a silvicultural event such as clearcutting or shelterwood removal, all three growth forms are collectively called advance reproduction. The number, size, and spatial distribution of oak advance reproduction and the capacity of the parent stand (overstory) to produce oak stump sprouts can be used to assess a stand's oak regeneration potential, i.e., its capacity to occupy and dominate growing space at a specified time in the new stand. Because the population dynamics of oak reproduction vary greatly among species and different kinds of oak forests, this variation should be recognized in assessing stand regeneration potential.

Keywords: oak reproduction, seedlings, seedling sprout, stump sprout, xeric, mesic, silviculture, stand.

Larsen, D.R., M.A. Metzger, and P.S. Johnson. 1997. Oak rgenerations and overstory density in the Missouri Ozarks. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 27: 1-7.

ABSTRACT: Reducing overstory density is a commonly recommended method of increasing the regeneration potential of oak (Quercus) forests. However, recommendations seldom specify the probable increase in density or the size of reproduction associated with a given residual overstory density. This paper presents logistic regression models that describe this relation for a forest in the Ozark Highlands of Missouri that has been managed for 40 years by the single-tree selection system. In general, density of oak reproduction of a given size increases with decreasing residual stand basal area. However, the corresponding increase in the reproduction density at all levels of overstory density indicates low predictability of individual stands. The models nevertheless describe the average trend in the highly stochastic regeneration process. They also suggest that stand densities must be kept low (e.g., basal areas <14 m2 ha-1) to sustain the requisite recruitment of reproduction into the overstory under the single-tree selection method.

Keywords: overstory density, reproduction, Oak, regression model.

Larsen, D.R., Loewenstein, E.F., Johnson, P.S. 1999. Sustaining recruitment of oak reproduction in uneven-aged stands in the Ozark Highlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-203.St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 11 p.

ABSTRACT: Successful application of the single-tree selection system in Ozark oak forests depends on sustaining adequate recruitment of reproduction into the overstory. In turn, this requires maintaining stand density at ecologically appropriate levels. The ecological requirements for oak recruitment are discussed and guiding curves are presented that meet those requirements.

Keywords: Uneven-aged silviculture, stand structure, stand density, diameter distributions.

Loftis, D.L. 1982. Regenerating red oak on productive sites in the Southern Appalachians: a research approach. Proceedings: Second Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. Atlanta, Georgia. November 4-5. 144-150 pp.

ABSTRACT: Red oak (Quercus rubra L.) stems in a favorable competitive position are usually absent from recently created even-aged stands, even where red oak was a prominent component of the previous stand. Past research indicates that lack of adequate advance reproduction is the problem on productive sites. A quantitative approach to develop predictive models of regeneration development is outlined. The objectives of this research are to provide:
(1) a method of predicting performance of advance reproduction after harvest, and (2) the silvicultural practices which will enhance the development of advance reproduction. Using this information, the manager would be able to maintain red oak as a component in these stands.

Keywords: Red Oak, even-aged stands, reproduction, regeneration, silviculture.

Martin, A.J. and D.M. Hix. 1988. Regeneration development in an upland hardwood stand following a Shelterwood harvest. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 5(1): 46-49.

ABSTRACT: In 1958, 85 permanent mil-acre plots were established in a 3.5-ac shelterwood harvest area to monitor regeneration over time. Individual seedlings were numbered with metal tags in this predominantly red oak stand in east-central Wisconsin. Findings, after 26 growing seasons, indicate a low proportion of red oak in the present stand (7.8% of the basal area, 3.6% of the stems). The predominant species is now eastern hophornbeam (iron-wood), although other species such as white ash and basswood are common. All of the present red oak became established after the initial regeneration counts. Height growth and survival rates were significantly higher for those stems taller than the mean seedling height in 1959.

Keywords: Red Oak, regeneration, shelterwood.

McDonald, T. and B. Stokes. 1997. Visual quality assessment of alternative silvicultural practices in upland hardwood management. Forest operations for sustainable forests and healthy economies; Proceedings: Council on Forest Engineering, 20th annual meeting: 165-169 pp.

ABSTRACT: Visual impacts of forest operations are of increasing concern to forest managers. Tools are available for evaluating, and potentially avoiding, problems in visual quality resulting from poorly designed harvest unit boundaries. One of these visualization tools is applied in comparing various harvest unit shape alternatives in an upland hardwood stand on steeply sloping ground. Visualization tools were found to be most suited to placing small leave strips within larger clearcuts for obscuring some areas from view and giving the impression of a series of smaller cutting units.
Keywords: visualization rendering, visual impacts, quality aesthetics.

McGee, C.E. 1987. Clearcutting in upland hardwoods: Panacea or anathema? Hay, R.L., F.W. Woods, and H.DeSelm, eds. In: Proceedings of the Central Hardwood Forest Conference 6. February 24-26. Knoxville, Tennessee. 21-29 pp.

ABSTRACT: Clearcutting, a silvicultural process described by Pinchot as "the easiest of them all to apply", is described within complex current economic, environmental, and social constraints. Economics is shown to be the major factor favoring the practice, but continued prescribed use is supported by biological, environmental, and ecological factors as well. The paper suggests that most resistance to clearcutting originates from visual and aesthetic concerns. Compromise in the use of clearcutting is foreseen as likely on some land holdings but with undesirable results if the ecological requirements of preferred species of plants and wildlife are not met.

Keywords: Multiple use, forest controversy, harvest cutting methods, regeneration methods.

McGee, C.E. 1982. Low-quality hardwood stands: Opportunities for management in the interior uplands. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. General Technical Report. SO-40: 22 p.

ABSTRACT: Low-quality hardwood stands present opportunity and challenge in the Interior Uplands. This guidebook discusses the primary causes of low-quality hardwood stands and offers management options for regenerating or improving these stands. Methods for evaluating stand and site potential are provided. A technique for comparing stands and prescribing treatment is also suggested.

Keywords: upland hardwoods, conversion, natural regeneration, high-grading, clearcutting, sparse stands.

McGee, C.E. 1982. Regeneration after shear felling and chipping of upland hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. General Technical Report. SO-224: 13 p.

ABSTRACT: Low-quality hardwood stands on the Cumberland Plateau and the Western Highland Rim were harvested by shear felling and on-site chipping. Methods for introducing loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), white pine (P. strobus L.), short-leaf pine (P. echinata Mill.), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) seedlings into these stands with minimum or no site preparation were explored. The effect of limited site preparation on natural regeneration was also evaluated. The desirability of intentional development of planted pine-natural hardwood mixtures was studied. Intensive harvest was found to be a key to reduced site preparation needs.

Keywords: Natural regeneration, planted pines, pine-hardwood mixture, intensive harvest, Cumberland Plateau, Western Highland Rim.

Murphy, P.A. and J.B. Baker. 1991. Selection management of Shortleaf Pine in the Ouachita Mountains. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 15(1): 61-67.

ABSTRACT: Selection (uneven-aged) management was instituted in shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) stands on three experimental watersheds in the Ouachita Mountains. The residual stand structure imposed on each was 60 ft2 of basal area, a maximum tree diameter of 18 in., and a q-value of 1.2 for 1 in. dbh classes. Hardwoods were injected with herbicide before the initial harvest. The average annual per-acre growth for the three watersheds for the first 6-year management period was 2 ft2 of merchantable basal area growth, 57 ft3 of merchantable volume growth, and sawtimber growth of 157 board feet for the Doyle rule, 231 bd ft for the Scribner rule, and 274 bd ft for the International 1/4-inch rule. Basal area and merchantable volume growth were up to expectations, but sawtimber growth was not. Sawtimber growth may increase as stand structure improves under management.

Keywords: Selection, uneven-aged, shortleaf pine, Ouachita Mountains, hardwoods, structure.

Murphy, P.A., M.G. Shelton, and D.L. Graney. 1993. Group Selection: Problems and possibilities and for the more shade-intolerant species. Proceedings: 9th Central Hardwood Forest Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. March 8-10. 229-247 pp.

ABSTRACT: The group selection method is a hybrid, drawing key elements from both even- and uneven-aged silviculture. It is perhaps the least used and understood of all the reproductive cutting methods, but it is gaining popularity because of the current disfavor of even-aged silviculture. The group selection method appears promising for regenerating shade-intolerant and intermediate-tolerant species. Research has shown that larger openings create conditions favorable to shade-intolerant species, while smaller openings favor the more shade-tolerant ones. Larger openings consist of a central core that is relatively unaffected by the adjoining stand and a periphery with increasing levels of suppression. Operationally, most opening widths vary around one to two times the dominant tree height in the residual stand, but research has yet to verify the long-term stand dynamics within openings. Even less is known about effective stand-regulation options available to provide sustained yields. One route is to adapt stand structure or volume control from the single-tree selection system. An alternative is to use :
(1) the silvical requirements of the target species to set opening size, and
(2) area control to determine the number of openings to create each cutting cycle.
This latter approach seems to have advantages for applications in even-aged stands that are being converted to uneven-aged ones.
Keywords: Group selection, even-aged, uneven-aged, opening, single-tree selection.

Phillips, D.L. and D.J. Shure. 1990. Patch-size effects on early succession in southern Appalachian forest. Ecology. 71(1): 204-212.

ABSTRACT: Four sizes of forest openings (0.016, 0.08, 0.4, and 2.0 ha, two replicates each) were established in a Southern Appalachian forest to examine the effects of disturbance size on early successional community structure and function. Solar radiation, soil temperature, and air temperature were all higher in large openings than small openings and increased from edge to center of disturbance patches. Aboveground net primary productivity (NPP) was 3-4 times as high in large (2.0 ha) as small (0.0 1 6 ha) openings, presumably in response to greater light availability in large patches. Stump and root sprouts of tree species accounted for the largest fraction of NPP in all patch sizes. Herbs, vines, shrubs, advance regeneration trees, and tree seedlings had progressively smaller NPP, respectively. Vegetation biomass reached 0.7-2.6% of undisturbed forest levels and aboveground NPP reached 17-58% of forest levels by the 2nd yr after cutting. Plant species richness was generally higher in large than small patches. Tree species composition shifted considerably following disturbance. Liriodendron tulipifera was important before and after logging. Large canopy dominants such as Oaks and hickories were relatively unimportant sources of sprouts during early revegetation. Instead, minor canopy and understory species such as Robinia pseudoacacia, Halesia carolina, Acer rubrum, Cornus florida, and Magnolia fraseri were the major sprouters in all patch sizes. The N-fixing black locust (Robinia) was much more important in large than small openings. Disturbance size within the Southern Appalachians thus affects microenvironment, species composition, and NPP during early revegetation.

Keywords: aboveground net primary productivity, disturbance, forest, gaps, patch dynamics, Robinia pseudoacacia, Southern Appalachian Mountains, sprouting, succession.

Phillips, D.R. and J.A. Abercrombie, Jr. 1987. Growth and development of Shortleaf Pine-Hardwood mixed stands four years after regeneration. Proceedings: Fourth Biennial Southern silvicultural Research Conference. Atalanta, Georgia. Nov.4-6. 162-165 pp.

ABSTRACT: Three four-year-old shortleaf pine-hardwood mixed stands were inventoried in the winter of 1985. The stands had been established on the Sumter National Forest through low intensive site preparation that involved spring chainsaw felling of residuals and summer burning. Results show that 304 to 414 of the 454 planted pines per acre were free-to-grow after 4 years. Average total height of the pines was 7.9, 8.4 and 9.3 feet in the three stands. Corresponding average total heights for hardwoods was 5.8, 4.9,and 4.7 feet. These mixed stands are well stocked with pines and commercially important hardwoods and thus have high timber value potential. They also can provide many nontimber benefits.

Keywords: Shortleaf pine, hardwood, regeneration.

Phillips, D.R. and J.A. Abercrombie, Jr. 1987. Pine-Hardwood mixtures-A new concept in regeneration. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 11(4): 192-197.

ABSTRACT: Spring felling of standing residuals left after a commercial clearcut, controlled burning the following summer, and hand planting of approximately 450 pine seedlings per acre can produce productive pine-hardwood mixtures on many medium sites in the Southeast. Stand establishment costs are approximately one-half that for conventional pine plantations using intensive site-preparation techniques. These stands have the potential to enhance wildlife, increase forest diversity, improve visual attractiveness, and provide good overall productivity. Early growth of individual pine trees on three study sites was approximately equal to that of pines growing in pure pine plantations of the same age. After 4 growing seasons, 304 to 414 free-to-grow shortleaf pines (Pinus echinata Mill.) per acre in the study stands averaged 7.9 to 9.3 feet in total height. Oaks (Quercus L. spp.), the predominant hardwood component of the stands, averaged 4.8 to 6.4 feet in total height after 4 years. If correctly applied, this new regeneration technique has the potential to bring many thousands of acres under management that presently are left unattended following harvest.

Keywords: pine, hardwood, oak, shortleaf, clearcut, burn, diversity.

Roach, B.A. 1968. Is clear cutting good or bad? Keep Tennessee Green Journal. 8(4): 4-5, 12-14.

ABSTRACT: I set out to answer the question, Is clearcutting good or bad ? This question can no more be answered than one can say whether a hammer or a saw is good or bad. Clear-cutting is only a tool.
As with any powerful tool, clear-cutting must be used carefully and with thought to possible consequences. A clearcut patch will produce no usable products for sometime. Therefore the user must schedule his cuttings to suit long-term management objectives, so that reasonably uniform production is possible.
Finally, not just clearcutting, but all forestry practices, must be applied with consideration not only to the public benefits but also to publics desires. Nowadays we cannot practice forestry in a social vacuum.

Keywords: clearcut, management objectives, public.
Roach, B.A. 1962. Practical silviculture for central hardwood stands. Southern Lumberman. October-1. 34-35, 38.

ABSTRACT: Several decades of silvicultural research in the Central Hardwoods have yielded a wealth of useful information. By no means do we have all the answers. But out of the mass of knowledge that has accumulated certain principles have developed that can serve as excellent guides to practical forest management. Let us consider briefly then what we know and what we believe about growing hardwoods in the Central States.

Keywords: silviculture, central hardwoods, thinnings, forest, woodland, clearcut, uneven-aged.

Roach, B.A. 1974. What is selection cutting and how do you make it work; What is group selection and where can it be used? Applied Forestry Research Institute. Syracuse, New York. Miscellaneous Report No. 5, October. 9 p.

ABSTRACT: Two Questions: What is selection cutting and how do you make it work? What is group selection and where can it be used?
Most of the principles I will discuss in answering these questions seem broadly applicable to nearly any forest type, but my discussion and answers are aimed specifically at the difficulties of managing the eastern hardwoods.
Answers to the above questions require a good understanding about three elements basic to the practice of forestry, but about which there is much confusion. These elements are regeneration methods, silvicultural systems, and regulatory systems.
In answering the aforementioned questions basic forestry, ways to sustain yield, marking for a selection cut, and terminology used are all addressed by B. Roach.

Keywords: regeneration, silvicultural systems, regulatory systems, group selection, single-tree.

Roach, B.A. and S.F. Gingrich. 1968. Even-aged silviculture for upland Central Hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 355. 39 p.

ABSTRACT: The past practice of selection cutting in overmature and defective stands of these hardwoods has often resulted in a gradual deterioration of both species composition and tree quality for timber production. However, on some special areas of these hardwood forest lands, esthetics, recreation, or other values are more important than timber, and therefore selection cutting may still be the most desirable cutting practice. Long-term timber profits from lands so cut, of course, will almost always be less than timber profits obtained by even-aged management and clearcutting of mature hardwood stands. A careful balancing of all benefits will have to be made in each individual case where there are strong competing demands.
Clearcutting, as a means of reproducing even-aged stands composed of preferred species, has shown great promise as an efficient and productive method of growing timber. The orderly renewal of our forests and the development of thrifty young stands will assure our Nation a continued adequate supply of quality wood products while at the same time increasing the value of the forest resource.
This handbook brings together the results of more than 20 years of research and experience, both public and private, in the culture of upland hardwood stands. Many of the recommendations given have been applied successfully on public and private lands for several years. This handbook is an elaboration and expansion of the Timber Management Guide for Upland Central Hardwoods prepared by the same authors under the former Central States Forest Experiment Station, last issued in December 1962 and revised through 1965.

Keywords: Even-aged, timber management, central upland hardwoods, clearcutting, reproduction.

Sander, I.L. and F.B. Clark. 1971. Reproduction of upland hardwood forests in the central states. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 405. 25 p.

ABSTRACT: This handbook summarizes data from studies of central hardwood reproduction after harvest cuttings ranging from single-tree selection cutting to complete clearcutting. Regardless of how the stands were cut, natural reproduction was always adequate to produce acceptable new stands; but the heavier cuttings favored intolerant species and faster growth of all species. Reproduction present after harvest cutting consisted of varying proportions of new seedlings, advance reproduction, new sprouts from advance reproduction, and stump sprouts. The proportion of these different types of reproduction in the new stand varied with the silvical requirements of the species and the harvest cutting method used. Little new reproduction was found after single-tree selection or other partial cuttings, but after clearcutting or group selection cutting new sprouts from advance reproduction and new seedlings predominated. Regardless of the cutting method used, yellow-poplar reproduction was primarily seedlings; but oaks, hickory, maples, blackgum, sassafras, and dogwood came mostly from advance reproduction. Black cherry and white ash were both of seedling origin and advance reproduction. To reproduce upland central hardwoods most successfully, the cutting method chosen must create conditions that satisfy the silvical requirements of the species wanted in the new stand.

Keywords: advanced reproduction, central hardwood, clearcutting, group selection, silvical, oak, hickory, maple.
Sander, I.L. 1972. Size of oak advance reproduction: Key to growth following harvest cutting. U.S. Department of Agriculture. North Central Forest Experiment Station. Forest Service. Research Paper NC-79. 6 p.

ABSTRACT: When a mature upland oak stand is harvested, the oaks in the new stand come from advance reproduction already present on the area. Some oak reproduction is present under most mature stands over the commercial range of oak species. However, the amount varies greatly from stand to stand, and ranges from almost nothing to thousands of stems per acre (Minckler and Jensen 1959, Trimble and Hart 1961, Arend and Scholz 1969). The oak component of newly regenerated stands is sometimes inadequate even when oak advance reproduction is abundant, because it fails to grow fast enough to compete successfully. Thus, numbers alone do not indicate how many oaks will become dominant in the new stand.
An Ohio study showed the size of the advance reproduction to be an important determinant of new oak sprout growth following clearcutting (Sander 1971). In this study the old stems were cut off near the ground to force them to sprout. Growth of the new sprouts was related to the diameter of the old stem at the ground line; the larger the old stem cut off, the faster the sprout that originated from its stump grew.
These results have been confirmed by a study in southern Illinois reported here. This study shows that oak reproduction growth following overstory treatment depends on size of the reproduction before cutting whether or not an advance reproduction stem was cut or broken off during logging, and the amount of overstory left after cutting.
Keywords: advanced reproduction, oak, logging, upland oak, harvest, regeneration, clearcutting.

Smith, H.C., N.I. Lamson, and G.W. Miller. 1989. An esthetic alternative to clearcutting? Deferment cutting in eastern hardwoods. Journal of Forestry. 87(3): 14-18.

ABSTRACT: A type of residual tree or deferment practice for Allegheny hardwoods has been done with saplings, poles, and small sawtimber trees (Marquis et al.1984, Bennett and Armstrong 1981). Residual trees minimize deer problems; retain tolerant species in the overstory canopy; reduce the risk of forested areas being transformed to nearly permanent savannas of grass, fern, sedge, and weeds; provide a return during the first one-third to one-half of the rotation; and produce wood and seed. This paper describes deferment cutting in 75- to 80-year-old, second-growth Appalachian hardwood stands and presents 5-year results on tree and stand responses.

Keywords: Appalachian hardwood, deferment cutting, deer.
Smith, H.C., and G.W. Miller. 1987. Managing Appalachian hardwood stands using four regeneration practices----34-year results. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry.
4(4): 180-185.

ABSTRACT: Adjacent Appalachian hardwood stands in West Virginia established on excellent growing sites were managed for a 34-year period using four regeneration practices. These practices included a commercial clearcut, 15.5-in diameter-limit, and two single-tree selection practices. An uncut area was maintained as a control. Stand development, growth response, and some stumpage revenue data were summarized for each treatment. At 34 years after the initial treatments, the commercial clearcut stand had the greatest variety of tree species for future management. This stand was dominated primarily by yellow-poplar and black locust. Selection and 15.5-in diameter-limit treatments promoted sugar maple on these excellent sites. Stand quality improved through management. After 34 years, the control area was worth $1,554/ac, and an intensively managed selection area was worth $1,214/ac, but the control area contained twice the sawtimber volume. Other preliminary value comparisons indicate that landowners benefit from some type of management compared to doing no management.

Keyword: Appalachian hardwood, diameter-limit, single- tree selection, clearcut, West Virginia.

Stokes, B.J., R.A. Kluender, J.F. Klepac, and D.A. Lortz. 1997. Harvesting impacts as a function of removal intensity. Proceedings of a symposium organized by IUFRO Project Group P3.11.00 at the IUFRO World Congress. Tampere, Finland. August 6-12, 1995. 207-216.

ABSTRACT: Single-tree selection, group selection, shelterwood, seed-tree, and clearcut harvesting methods were evaluated for residual site impacts. The stands were harvested during the summer of 1993 on the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Manual felling and rubber-tired skidders were used to harvest all 23 stands. Percentage of area in primary skid trails was 8.2, 9.6, 13.2, 12.5, and 13.7 for the single-tree selection, group selection, shelterwood, seed-tree, and clearcut treatments, respectively. The single-tree selection treatment had the most undisturbed soil area (39.4 percent) after harvesting, as compared to 25.6 percent for the group selection, 13.1 for the shelterwood, 9.1 for the seed-tree, and 6.0 for the clearcut. Residual pine damage was greatest for the group selection treatment.

Keywords: Single-tree, group, selection, shelterwood, clearcut, Arkansas, soil, damage.
Tang, S.M and E.J. Gustafson. 1997. Perception of scale in forest management planning: Challenges and implications. Landscape and Urban Planning. 39(1): 1-9.

ABSTRACT: Forest management practices imposed at one spatial scale may affect the patterns and processes of ecosystems at other, scales. These impacts and feedbacks on the functioning of ecosystems across spatial scales are not well understood. We examined the effects of silvicultural manipulations simulated at two spatial scales of management planning on landscape pattern and assessed the implications for forest-interior bird species. Landscape context was taken into consideration in determining harvest locations in the landscape-base management planning scenario but not in the stand-base planning scenario (where the focus of planning activities was at the level of individual stands and the context in which stands were located was not considered). We also compared ecological implications of patterns created at the stand and landscape levels by even- and uneven-age silvicultural systems. We used a harvest simulator (HARVEST) to simulate even-age, uneven-age and a combination of even- and uneven-age management systems for a period of 5 decades in the two forest management planning scenarios. Clearcuts of 5 to 16 ha were simulated to represent even-age management and small openings of 0.09 to 22 ha scattered throughout a stand were simulated to represent uneven-age management. Forest management that considered landscape context generated greater landscape total core area compared to that of the stand-base planning. There was a difference in landscape mean patch size, interspersion index, Simpson's diversity index and total core area for patches defined by stand age between stand- and landscape-base management planning. These results indicate that different landscape patterns can be produced by management planning conducted at different spatial scales. The scale of focus should depend on the management goals. Silvicultural manipulations at the stand level can cause the creation of different patterns at the stand and landscape levels. Such differences can lead to different ecological implications at each of those levels, thereby making it difficult to simply aggregate stand-level responses to the landscape-level. Furthermore, the ecological effects of landscape patterns on processes can be highly variable as the effects depend on how patches are defined.

Keywords: forest management planning, scale, spatial pattern, forest birds, timber harvest, fragmentation, landscape metrics.

Tritton, L.M., C.W. Martin, J.W. Hornbeck, and R.S. Pierce. Biomass and nutrient removals from commercial thinning and whole-tree clearcutting of Central Hardwoods. Environmental Management. 11(5): 659-666.

ABSTRACT: The objective of this research was to evaluate the impacts of increasing product removal on biomass and nutrient content of a central hardwood forest ecosystem. Commercial thinning, currently the most common harvesting practice in southern New England, was compared with whole-tree clearcutting or maximum aboveground utilization. Using a paired-watershed approach, we studied three adjacent, first-order streams in Connecticut. During the winter of 1981-82, one was whole-tree clearcut, one was commercially thinned, and one was designated as the untreated reference. Before treatment, living and dead biomass and soil on the whole-tree clearcut site contained 578 Mg ha-1 organic matter, 5 Mg ha-1 nitrogen, 1 Mg ha-1 phosphorus, 5Mg ha-1 potassium, 4 Mg ha-1 calcium, and 13 Mg ha-1 magnesium. An estimated 158 Mg ha-1 (27% of total organic matter) were removed during the whole-tree harvest. Calcium appeared to be the nutrient most susceptible to depletion with 13% of total site Ca removed in whole-tree clearcut products. In contrast, only 4% (16 Mg ha-1) of the total organic matter and £2% of the total nutrients were removed from the thinned site. Partial cuts appear to be a reliable management option, in general, for minimizing nutrient depletion and maximizing long-term productivity of central hardwood sites. Additional data are needed to evaluate the long-term impacts of more intensive harvests.

Keywords: nutrient, whole-tree, clearcutting, central hardwood, partial cuts.

Walter, W.D., and P.S. Johnson. 1999. Sustainable Silviculture for Missouri's Oak Forest. Paper presented at the 1999 Environmental Sustainability and Public Policy Conference: Towards a Vision for Missouri's Private Forest. University of Missouri-Columbia. (Yet unpublished)

ABSTRACT: Given the forest types common to Missouri, and historic forest uses in the state, a discussion is presented on what is sustainable forestry. Forestry is in the process of moving away from the ruling theory of sustained yield and toward the paradigm of sustainable forest. Presented are the silvicultural methods (clearcutting, shelterwood, seed tree, and single-tree and group selection) and how they may fit the paradigm of sustainable forestry in Missouri.

Keywords: clearcut, shelterwood, single-tree, group selection, Missouri, oak, hickory, sustainable forestry, Central Hardwood.
SOIL AND NUTRIENTS

Bird, G. A., and L. Chatarpaul. 1986. Effect of whole-tree and conventional forest harvest on soil microarthropods. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 64: 1986-1993.

ABSTRACT: The effect of whole-tree and conventional harvest on soil microarthropods, Collembola and Acari, was investigated in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest on the Canadian Shield. Harvesting had a major effect on their populations which declined to 56 and 68% of those on the uncut plot for the whole-tree and conventional harvest plots, respectively. Species composition was unaffected by harvesting although there were shifts in dominance. Total numbers of microarthropods and numbers of Oribatei, Prostigmata, and Mesostigmata found on the uncut plot were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than on harvested plots. Slightly higher (P > 0.05) numbers of Collembola were recorded from the conventional harvest plot than the uncut plot. Oribatei, Prostigmata, and Collembola were more abundant (P < 0.01) on the conventional harvest plot than the whole-tree harvest plot. Of the two forest harvesting methods, conventional harvest had a lesser impact on soil microarthropods. Because the forest soil fauna is intimately involved in decomposition, nutrient cycling, and soil formation, our findings suggest that long-term site productivity will be greater following conventional harvest than whole-tree harvest.

Keywords: whole-tree harvest, soil, nutrient cycling, microarthropods, conventional harvest, conifer, hardwood, decomposition.

Carter, E., B. Rummer, B. Stokes. 1997. Site disturbances associated with alternative prescriptions in an upland hardwood forest of northern Alabama. Proceedings, 1997 ASAE Annual International Meeting. Minneapolis, Minn. Paper No. 975013.

ABSTRACT: A study was installed in an upland hardwood forest to evaluate the site impacts associated with three alternative prescriptions - clearcut, deferment cut, and strip cut. Two methods of site impact assessment were employed:
1) assignment of disturbance classes to selected points within each treatment area and 2) measurement of soil bulk density, gravimetric water content, and soil strength at points previously evaluated for soil disturbance class.
Clearcut and deferment cut treatments produced the greatest impacts as evidenced by higher percentage of slightly and highly disturbed areas and increases in bulk density and soil strength. Strip cut treatments had less impact on a stand wide basis but cut strips experienced similar impacts.

Keywords: Hardwood, clearcut, deferment cut, strip cut, soil strength, bulk density, disturbance class.
Fahey, T.J., J.W. Hughes, M. PU, and M.A. Arthur. 1988. Root decomposition and nutrient flux following whole-tree harvest of Northern Hardwood Forest. Forest Science. 34(3): 744-768.

ABSTRACT: Decomposition of roots of four dominant species (Acer saccharum, Betula alleghaniensis, Fagus grandifolia, Picea rubens) in a northern hardwood ecosystem was measured following whole-tree harvest of watershed 5 at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. To quantify the importance of element release from tree root systems after forest harvest, measurements of macronutrient (N, K, P, Ca, Mg) release from roots of seven diameter (mm) classes (< 0.6, 0.6-1.0, 1.0-2.5, 2.5-5.0, 5-10,10-20, 20- 100) were combined with information on root system nutrient content. Decay of fine roots (all species) was initially rapid but declined abruptly after the first summer. Ash-free weight loss from small woody roots decreased with increasing root diameter and was much slower than decay rates for corresponding aboveground tissues (twigs and branches). Weight loss rates among species generally were not significantly different; however, large woody roots (10- 100 mm diameter) of sugar maple decayed much more rapidly than the other species.
Rapid release of K and Mg was observed for all roots. Initially high rates of N and F, release were observed for fine roots, whereas these nutrients were effectively retained in decaying woody roots. Retention of Ca was observed for all roots, and significant accumulation of Ca was observed in the larger size classes of woody roots. Particularly for N and K, release from decaying roots was an important nutrient flux pathway supplying stream outflow and vegetation regrowth in the first two years following forest harvest.

Keywords: Mineralization, nutrient content, root biomass, root.

Henderson, G.S., C.D. Settergren, and D.M. Smith. 1980. Nitrogen and cation mobility following an oak-hickory harvest in the Missouri Ozarks. In: Proc. 3rd Cent. Hardwoods For. Conf. University of Missouri. 77-81.

ABSTRACT: The influence of forest harvest and a stream channel buffer strip on nutrient concentrations in surface water was studied for an area in southwest Missouri vegetated with oak and hickory. Water samples for three types of collection sites (surface runoff plots, harvested subcatchments with and without a buffer strip, and control and treatment watershed outlets) were analyzed for NH4+ -N, NO3- -N, Ca, Mg, K and Na. Harvesting increased nutrient concentrations in surface runoff by 44, 67, 37, 52, 29, and 85% for NH4+ -N, NO3- -N, Ca, Mg, K and Na, respectively. Concentrations of nutrients decreased as the surface water moved into the intermittent drainage and were much reduced by the time the streamflow passed from the base of the treated watershed. Harvesting in headwater portions of larger watersheds appears to have little detrimental effect on quality of water leaving the larger watershed area. The buffer strip reduced concentrations of all nutrients except Na and NO3- -N. Soil water temperature conditions conducive to nitrification in areas near the intermittent drainage where a buffer strip was not present are probably responsible for these higher NO3- -N levels. Significant amounts of nutrient redistribution are occurring within the harvested area but only a portion of these are leaving the watershed in streamflow.

Keywords: nutrient cycling, buffer strips, water quality, streamflow, runoff, streamflow chemistry, forest disturbance.

Hoekstra, J.M., R.T. Bell, A.E. Launer, and D.D. Murphy. 1995. Soil arthropod abundance in Coast Redwood Forest: effect of selective timber harvest. Environmental Entomology. 24(2): 246-252.

ABSTRACT: Soil arthropod communities were surveyed and compared in litter layers of selectively harvested and nonharvested forests of coast redwood. Sequoia sempervirens, to assess impact of a 15-yr selective timber harvest cycle. Abundance of four guilds (microphytophages, panphytophages, macrophytophages, and predators) were estimated from litter samples taken from three forest classes: uncut old growth, mature second growth last harvested before 1920, and selectively harvested forest sampled 14-yr after harvest. Microphytophage and panphytophage abundance did not vary significantly among forest classes. Macrophytophages showed significantly higher abundance in selectively harvested forest, whereas predators showed significantly reduced abundance in selectively harvested forest. Because no significant differences in macrophytophage and predator abundance were found between old growth and mature second growth classes, observed differences are attributed to the selective timber harvest regime. Furthermore, since selectively harvested forest was sampled for arthropods 14-yr after harvest, it appears that the 15-yr cycle is of insufficient duration to allow full recovery of soil arthropod communities from the effect of selective timber harvest. In addition, it is likely that species are at high risk of extinction, based on the striking observation that an entire order, Diplura, was absent from all samples taken from selectively harvested sites. Possible explanations for observed differences in guild abundance and potential implications for long-term maintenance of soil arthropod diversity are discussed.

Keywords: Soil arthropods, sustainable timber harvest, biodiversity conservation.

Hornbeck, J.W., C.W. Martin, R.S. Pierce, F.H. Bormann, G.E. Likens, J.S. Eaton. 1986. Clearcutting Northern Hardwoods: effects on hydrologic and nutrient ion budgets. Forest Science. 32(3): 667-686.

ABSTRACT: Two even-aged management systems, progressive strip cutting and block clearcutting, have been studied since 1970 on small watersheds at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. In the progressive strip cutting, all merchantable trees were harvested in a series of three strips over 4 years (1970-74). In the block clearcutting, all trees were harvested in a single operation in 1970. Block cutting caused an increase in water yield of 673 mm over 10 years compared to an increase of 397 mm for strip cutting. Maximum annual increases were 278 mm in the first year after block cutting versus 114 mm in the third year of the strip cutting sequence (two-thirds of watershed harvested). Nearly all of the increases on both watersheds occurred during the growing season months of June through September. For the 10-year period after stripcutting, nutrients lost as dissolved ions in streamflow were increased by 27 kg ha-1 for Ca2+, 30kg ha-1 , for K +, and 22 kg ha-1 for N. Corresponding increases after block clearcutting were 40kg ha-1 , for Ca2+, 48 kg ha-1 for K +, and 59 kg ha-1 for N. The combined losses of nutrients to product removal and increased leaching did not exceed 3 percent of preharvest capital for any of the nutrients studied. The losses assume greater importance when contrasted with plant available capitals of nutrients. However, with careful logging and continued use of intervals of 70 to 120 years between harvests, clearcutting of northern hardwoods should not have adverse impacts onsite nutrient capital.

Keywords: Betula, soil nutrients, stand regeneration, biomass.

Johnson, C.E., A.H. Johnson, T.G. Huntington, and T.G. Siccama. 1991. Whole-tree clear-cutting effects on soil horizons and organic-matter pools. Soil Science Society of America. 55(2): 497-502.

ABSTRACT: Timber harvest results in physical disturbance and relocation of soil materials. This study was undertaken to assess the degree to which logging altered soil horizonation, bulk density, and organic-matter pools at a northern hardwood forest site underlain by Spodosols. Soils were sampled immediately before and 3 yr after the commercial whole-tree harvest of Watershed 5 at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in central New Hampshire. The activity of logging machinery resulted in redistribution of organic matter within the solum. Thus, the thickness of the O horizon decreased from 6.9cm to 5.5 cm, while O horizon mass and organic-matter content increased (from 8.7-12.2 kg m-7 and from 5.4-5.7 kg m-2, respectively). One-fourth of the post harvest soil pits exhibited an Ap horizon, which was not present prior to harvesting and was formed from soil of the O, E, and Bh horizons. Compaction of the soil during the logging operation resulted in increased (5-15%) bulk density in the upper 20 cm of mineral soil. The total pool of organic matter in the solum did not change following harvesting. Thus, losses of organic matter via stream water and respiration were approximately balanced by inputs from decaying roots and leaf litter. The conservation of organic matter following harvesting is important in preserving soil fertility, since labile nutrients in northeastern Spodosols are generally associated with organic matter.

Keywords: Soil, organic matter, compaction, hardwood forest, Spodosols, logging, fertility.

Johnson, C.E., A.H. Johnson, and T.G. Siccama. 1991. Whole-tree clear-cutting effects on exchangeable cations and soil acidity. Soil Science Society of America.
55(2): 502-508.

ABSTRACT: It has been hypothesized that logging reduces soil fertility and site productivity. The objective of this study was to determine short-term (3-yr) effects of logging on soil pH, exchangeable cations, and cation-exchange capacity (CEC). We intensively sampled soils before and after the whole-tree harvesting of a northern hardwood forest at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest New Hampshire. Cation-exchange capacity decreased by 23% in the Oa horizon and 24% in the E horizon but increased by 67% in the Bh horizon and 34% in the Bs1 horizon. Overall, the number of exchange sites in the solum did not change appreciably with harvesting (202 vs. 206 kmolc ha-1). In the Oa, E, and Bb horizons, there was a decrease in the ratio of exchangeable base cations (Ca, Mg, and K) to exchangeable Al and H. As a result, base saturation decreased from 49 to 39% in the Oa, from 22 to 17% in the E, and from 14 to 11% in the Bh horizon. Soil pH decreased by 0.11, 0.32, and 0.24 pH units in the Oa, E, and Rh horizons, respectively. The acidification of the E and Bh horizons was probably the result of increased production of H through nitrification and mobilization of Al from the forest floor and mineral soil, while mixing of mineral soil into the forest floor largely explains the changes in the chemistry of the Oa horizon. At Hubbard Brook, accelerated leaching losses of nutrient cations following clear-cutting were not the result of depletion of exchangeable cation pools.

Keywords: logging, fertility, productivity, pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), hardwood forest.

Knoepp, J.D. and W.T. Swank. 1996. Long-term effects of commercial sawlog harvest on soil cation concentrations. Forest Ecology and Management. 93(1997):1-7.

ABSTRACT: There is increasing concern about the effects of nutrient removal associated with various forest harvesting practices on long-term site; productivity. We measured exchangeable soil cation concentration responses to a commercial clearcut sawlog harvest in mixed hardwoods on a 59-ha watershed in the southern Appalachians. Soils were sampled 17 months prior to, and periodically for 17 years after, harvest. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, and K, increased significantly in the 0-10-cm soil layer for 3 years following harvest compared to pretreatment levels. Concentrations of Mg and K were still significantly above pretreatment levels 17-20 years following harvest. Calcium concentrations did not change significantly at the 10-30 cm depth, but both Mg and K showed significantly higher concentrations in some post treatment years. Soils in the adjacent reference watershed showed no significant changes in soil cation concentrations over the same 17-year period. Results indicate that sawlog harvest using cable-yarding techniques on these sites does not adversely impact soil cation concentrations.

Keywords: forest management, soil chemistry, nutrient availability.

Mroz, G.D., M.F. Jurgensen, and D.J. Frederick. 1985. Soil nutrient changes following whole tree harvesting on three Northern Hardwood sites. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 49(6): 1552-1557.

ABSTRACT: Three northern hardwood stands were clearcut to evaluate the effect of whole tree harvesting on sites of varying quality. Stands were growing on sandy, out wash soils and had red maple (Acer rubrum L.) site indices of 15, 19, and 20 M and biomass values of 114,165, and 181 Mg ha-1. Harvesting did not alter extractable soil P levels significantly on any site. Forest floor weights decreased to similar values on all sites 1.5 yr after harvest. Nitrogen losses of over 1.3 Mg ha -1 occurred in the top meter of soil on all sites. This was attributed to the mixing of the forest floor with the surface mineral soil by the full tree skidding and the subsequent leaching of mineralized N. Soil exchangeable K decreased more than 1 Mg ha-1 on all sites. Changes in Ca and Mg were much smaller on the low and medium than on the high site. These losses from surface soil horizons are higher than reported previously for clearcutting northern hardwoods on till soils. The greatest impact of whole tree harvest on soil nutrients occurred on the better sites in this study rather than on the poor quality site.

Keywords: Whole tree, nutrient cycling, harvest impacts, forest floor, biomass harvesting.

Pennock, D.J. and C.van Kessel. 1997. Clear-cut forest harvest impacts on soil quality indicators in the mixed wood forest of Saskatchewan, Canada. Geoderma.
75: 13-32.

ABSTRACT: The concept of soil quality is relevant to a range of human-induced disturbances on soil; our objective was to examine the impact of clear-cutting on soil quality conditions in six Mixed wood (Populus tremuloides- Picea glauca) stands in Central Saskatchewan, Canada. Soil quality conditions at two short-term (1 to 5 years) and four medium-term (6 to 20 years) clear-cut sites were compared to eight mature Mixed wood sites. All sites had a similar, albeit complex, distribution of soil and parent sediments. No major differences were observed between the short-term clear-cut sites and the mature Mixed wood sites. At the medium-term sites, substantial losses of soil organic carbon (24%), soil nitrogen (27%), and LFH thickness (28%) were observed, along with decreases in the soil surface (O to 15 cm layer) of exchangeable calcium and magnesium (30%), soluble organic P (15%), and cation exchange capacity and base saturation(20%). The losses were much lower in the 15 to 45 cm layer of the soil. Overall, the levels of these soil components observed at the clear-cut sites were within the natural or undisturbed range as assessed at the mature Mixed wood sites; however the amounts of soil organic carbon and nitrogen at the clear-cut sites were lower than the natural range. Although the absolute levels of loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen were much lower than in typical agricultural landscapes, the long-term ecological significance of the losses in these forested landscapes remains a concern.

Keywords: boreal taiga and forest soils, forestry; soil degradation.

Ponder, F., D.E. Alley, D. Jordan, M.E. Swartz, and V.C. Hubbard. 1999. Impacts of harvest intensity and soil disturbance on early tree growth and earthworm populations in a Missouri Ozark forest. In: Proceedings of the 12th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. J.W. Stringer and D.L. Loftis, eds. Lexington, Kentucky. Feb.28-Mar.2. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Southern Research Station. General Technical Report. SRS-24. 121-127.

ABSTRACT: The long-term impact of increased removal of forest biomass and nutrients with increased harvest intensity on soil productivity is a general concern. In 1994, a long-term study was initiated in the Missouri Ozarks as part of the National Long-Term Soil Productivity (LTSP) study to study the effects of biomass removal and compaction on soil productivity. The study has three levels each of organic matter removal (boles only, whole tree, and whole tree plus forest floor) and soil compaction (none, moderate, and severe). This report presents 3-year preliminary results from the low and high organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments with and without weed control on survival and growth of planted northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), white oak (Quercus alba L.), and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) seedlings. Differences in seedling survival were affected by organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments. Trees with weed control were larger in diameter, taller, and had more diameter and height growth than trees without weed control. Organic matter removal and soil compaction treatments significantly affected the height and diameter growth of trees differently. Analysis of spring and fall samples of earthworm populations showed that soil compaction and time of sampling significantly influenced the number and biomass of earthworms.

Keywords: Oak, shortleaf, organic matter, whole tree, earthworms, compaction, growth.

Smith, W.N., P. Rochette, C. Monreal, R.L. Desjardins, E. Pattey, and A. Jaques. 1997. The rate of carbon change in agricultural soils in Canada at the landscape level. Canadian Journal of Soil science. 77(2): 219-229.

ABSTRACT: The Century model [a computer simulation of the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC)] was used to estimate the rate of SOC change in agricultural soils in Canada. The analysis was carded out on 180 Soil Landscapes of Canada (SLC) polygons, representing 15% of the SLC polygons within agricultural regions. The analysis was stratified into soil zones and into soil textural classes. For each sampled polygon, Century was run for 1 to 5 types of crop rotations under conventional-tillage as well as no-tillage, providing that no-till was used on at least 5% of the land. From the Century simulations, it was estimated that the overall rate of SOC loss from agricultural soils in Canada for1990 was 39.1 kg h -1 yr-1. This implies that 1.93 Mt of SOC (7.08 Mt of C02) was lost from agricultural soils in Canada. Compared to 1990, the SOC loss was estimated to have been greater by 11.9 kg ha-l yr-1 in 1980 and 9.1 kg ha-1 yr-1 in 1985. The lower loss in 1990 was primarily due to the incorporation of no-till practices and reduction of summer fallow in the mid 1980s. In 1990, at the provincial level, Alberta had the highest rate of SOC loss at 74.5 kg ha-1 yr-1 followed by Manitoba with 66.1 kg ha-1 yr-1. In Ontario, Quebec, and the Atlantic Provinces the average provincial rate of SOC loss was less than 35 kg ha-1 yr-1. Higher SOC loss rates were typically found in soils with coarser texture and greater native SOC content.

Keywords: Carbon dioxide, greenhouse gas, Century model.

Yanai, R.D. 1991. Soil solution phosphorus dynamics in a whole-tree-harvested Northern Hardwood Forest. Soil Science Society of America. 55(6):1746-1752.

ABSTRACT: Forest harvest drastically alters nutrient cycling, yet stream water and mineral-soil solutions typically show little change in P concentrations after forest disturbance. Changes in P availability and movement are more likely to be detected in forest-floor solutions, since P can be strongly absorbed in soil. Tension-free lysimeters were used to compare forest-floor and mineral-soil solution total-P concentrations in whole-tree-harvested and undisturbed forest sites for 2 yr after harvest in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. Mean total-P concentrations in solution in the forest floor (Oa horizon) were significantly higher in whole-tree-harvested sites (248 µg P L-1 ) thin in undisturbed forest sites (67 µg P L-1), presumably due to reduced plant uptake of P. Mean P concentrations in mineral-soil solution remained low after whole-tree harvest (32,g P L-1 in the Bh and 15 µg P L-1 in the Bs), consistent with the high P-sorption capacity of the mineral soil. Phosphorus flux in soil solution from the Oa to the B horizon, calculated from monthly mean P concentrations and monthly water flux simulated by a hydrologicmodel, was greater in whole-tree-harvested sites (1.0 kg P ha-1 yr-1) than in undisturbed forest sites (0.3 kg P ha-1 yr-1) in the first 2 yr after the disturbance. This redistribution of P from the forest floor to the mineral soil far exceeds stream-water export of dissolved P(0.02 kg P ha-1yr-1) but is small compared with forest-floor stores(85 kg P ha-1).

Keywords: nutrient cycling, forest harvest, whole-tree, stream water, soil, hydrology.
STREAM SEDIMENTATION AND WATER QUALITY

Brown A.V., Y.Aguilal, K.B.. Brown, and W.P. Fowler. 1997. Responses of benthic macro invertebrates in small intermittent streams to silvicultural practices. Hydrobiologia 347: 119-125.

ABSTRACT: We examined macro invertebrate communities in small (0. 1_1.0 M2) pools of intermittent streams (always containing some water but without perennial flow) with small watersheds (2-6 ha) subjected to five types of forest harvest to assess potential impacts of the different harvest methods. Buffer strips 10 m wide were left on each side of the streams. Each harvest treatment was coupled with a similar unharvested reference stand. An incomplete block design included three 0.05 m2 vacuum samples from each treatment paired with three from the adjacent references. There was a high degree of similarity among references for parameters other than taxonomic composition (e.g. macro invertebrate density, number of species, Shannon diversity, functional groups, etc.). Statistically significant differences were found between references and treatments and among harvest methods but the responses varied among response variables (density, Shannon-Weiner diversity, species composition), different species assemblages(all invertebrates, chironomids, Ephemeroptera-Plecoptera-Trichoptera [EPT], isopods), and functional group categories (shredders, collector-gatherers). We collected 56 taxa, 7-16 per site, with low community similarity (mean Jaccard's = 0. 18, mean Bray-Curtis percent dissimilarity = 8 1). The most severe harvest treatments resulted in the highest diversities of total invertebrates in these small spring pool communities.

Keywords: small intermittent streams, silvicultural methods, invertebrates, watershed, disturbance, forest.

Eaglin, G.S. and W.A. Hubert. 1993. Management Briefs: Effects of logging and roads on substrate and trout in streams of the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 13(4): 844-846.

ABSTRACT: We examined the influence of logging and road construction on substrate and standing stocks of trout (Saivelinus and Salmo) in 28 stream reaches in the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. The extent to which roads crossed watercourses (culvert density)within a drainage and the proportion of the drainage that was logged were positively correlated to both the amount of fine substrate and embeddedness. Trout standing stocks had a negative relation with the density of culverts. Erosion of soil from road surfaces, ditches, and disturbed areas adjacent to roads that subsequently is deposited in stream channels seems to be an important mechanism by which logging has affected stream habitat.

Keywords: logging, trout, road construction, drainage, erosion of soil, stream habitat.

Fowler, W. P. 1993. Woody debris dynamics in zero order streams of the Ouachita National Forest: Preliminary findings. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 182-185.

ABSTRACT: The importance of woody debris within zero order stream channels of the Ouachita National Forest is unclear. Basic processes of recruitment, occurrence and movement of woody debris are largely unexplored. The occurrence and abundance of woody debris dams may prove to be a useful indicator for aquatic macro invertebrate habitat. If so, woody debris may be used as an indirect biological indicator for the ephemeral portions of aquatic ecosystems. This study was conducted to map the location and estimate the biomass of woody debris in forested ephemeral channels. The effects of reproductive timber harvest methods on these debris dams are estimated by remeasurement of the location and biomass of the debris. Ratios of debris dams per 100m are determined and will be compared for untreated and treated drainages. Additionally, the basic processes of recruitment and movement are examined.

Keywords: woody debris, stream channel, drainage, timber harvest.

Golladay, S.W. and J.R. Webster. 1988. Effects of Clear-cut Logging on wood breakdown in Appalachian mountain streams. American Midland Naturalist. 119(1): 143-155.

ABSTRACT: Red oak (Quercus rubra) sticks, approximately 10-cm long and in three size classes (large, 3-cm diam, 22-55 g; medium, 1-2-cm, 12-22 g; small, <1-cm, 3-12 g) were placed at five sites in two second-order streams at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. One stream, Big Hurricane Branch, drains a watershed logged in 1976(WS 7); the other stream, Hugh White Creek, drains an uncut reference watershed(WS 14). Ten sticks of each size class were collected from each site at 6-month to 1-year intervals from September 1981 through November 1985. Calculated breakdown rates ranged from 0.107 to 0.281 y-1. Breakdown rates were significant different among size classes on both watersheds-smaller sticks lost mass faster than larger sticks. Breakdown rates of similar size sticks were significantly faster in Big Hurricane Branch, the disturbed stream, than in Hugh White Creek. Faster rates of wood breakdown in Big Hurricane Branch may be associated with higher stream NO3-N levels, greater stream channel instability and greater invertebrate abundance on sticks.
Keywords: Red oak, watershed, stream, breakdown rate.

Griffith, M.B. and Perry, S.A. 1991. Leaf pack processing in two Appalachian mountain streams draining catchments with different management histories. Hydrobiologia. 220(3): 247-254.

ABSTRACT: Rates of leaf litter processing and densities of macroinvertebrates in leaf packs were compared at two sites that differed in catchment logging history. The processing rate of leaves of sugar maple (Acer Saccharum Marsh.) was significantly faster in a stream draining a catchment that had been logged about 20 years ago than in one that had been undisturbed for 80 years. The faster processing rate was accompanied by significantly higher leaf pack densities of total macro invertebrates, shredders, and collector-gatherers. The higher densities of leaf pack macro invertebrates were apparently a result of differences in tree species between the two catchments. These differences resulted in greater inputs of fast-decomposing leaf litter to the stream draining the disturbed catchment and in smaller amounts of leaf litter remaining in the stream draining the disturbed catchment by spring when this study was conducted.

Keywords: leaf processing, decomposition, catchment disturbance, stream ecology, shredders.

Henderson, G.S. 1985. Nutrient dynamics in disturbed forests and associated influences on stream chemistry. In: Proceedings of Forestry and Water Quality: A Mid-South symposium. Little Rock, Arkansas. Edited by B.G. Blackmon, Department of Forest Resources, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. p55-65.

ABSTRACT: Recent theories on factors controlling nutrient dynamics in southern pine and hardwood stands are examined relative to dissolved nutrient discharge to streams and ground water. Nutrient discharges due to forest disturbance are universally low and this is undoubtedly coupled to slow nitrification rates. Riparian zones have been found to alter surface runoff chemistry and those with forested buffer strips appear to more effective in retaining dissolved nutrients.

Keywords: Hardwood, nutrient, discharge, disturbance, riparian zone, runoff, buffer strip.

Jacobson, R.B., A.L. Pugh. Riparian-vegetation controls on the spatial pattem of stream-channel instability, Little Piney Creek, Missouri. Water-Supply Paper, W 2494, p. 33

ABSTRACT: The role of riparian vegetation is assessed quantitatively by using a five-decade record of valley bottom vegetation and channel dynamics developed from historical aerial photography. A 12-kilometer reach of a typical Ozarks stream was mapped using aerial photographs from 1938, 1948, 1955, 1965, 1976, and1989; maps were then analyzed in a digital geographic information system. Analysis of sequential pairs of maps provides transition frequencies for assessing the relative areal rates at which riparian woodland, grassland, and cropland have been eroded or subjected to gravel aggradation. Results indicate that cropland and grassland have been no more likely to erode than woodland; cropland and grassland are slightly more susceptible to gravel deposition than woodland. These findings underscore the potential for complex responses of streams to a cumulative history of riparian and drainage-basin disturbances.

Keywords: Missouri little-piney creek, cropland, grassland, Ozark stream, riparian vegetation.

Miller, E.L., R.S. Beasley, and E.R. Lawson. 1988. Forest harvest and site preparation effects on stormflow and peak flow of ephemeral streams in the Ouachita Mountains. Journal of Environmental Quality. 17(2): 212-218.

ABSTRACT: Stormflow and peakflow response to three silvicultural treatments--clearcutting, selection cutting, and no disturbance (control) were compared in a replicated small watershed study in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. Watersheds were blocked according to aspect, location, soils, and geology in a randomized complete block design to test effects of treatments. Soils on the watersheds are shallow and were derived from sandstones and shale parent materials. Annual precipitation totals ranged from 72 to 142% of the long-term average (131.7 cm) during the study and a single rainstorm exceeding the 100-yr, 24-h event occurred the second year following harvest treatments. Overall, stormflow water yields did not increase significantly due to forest harvest treatments apparently because permeable soils and subsurface geology allowed deep seepage at the expense of stormflow. However, a treatment response was observed within one block and there was clearly a difference in stormflow response between blocks of watersheds. Annual stormflow as a percentage of precipitation ranged from 2 to 59% across watersheds and years. Overall peakflows did not increase significantly due to treatment, but a treatment response was observed

within one block of watersheds and there was a significant difference in peakflows between blocks. Treatment differences in stormflow and peakflow for the 100-yr event were not significant. Stormflow to precipitation ratios for this event ranged from 0.63 to 0.81.

Keywords: Hydrology, Water yield, Runoff, Clear-cutting, Selection cutting.

Perison, D., J. Phelps, C. Pavel, and R. Kellison. 1997. The effects of timber harvest in a South Carolina blackwater bottomland. Forest Ecology and Management. 90(2,3): 171-185.

ABSTRACT: This study was initiated on the South Fork Edisto River in South Carolina to investigate and compare the impacts of two different harvest methods (helicopter and rubber-tired skidders) on the ecological structure and function of a blackwater forested wetland. The two harvest treatments were chosen to represent a broad spectrum of potential impacts and were compared to an undisturbed site. Following harvest in 1991, functional responses in vegetative productivity, herpetofaunal populations, and soil and water quality were evaluated in 1992 and 1993. Herbaceous biomass was greater on the helicopter and skidders treatments than on the undisturbed control. In general, the biomass measured on the skidders treatment was not significantly different from the biomass measured on the helicopter treatment. Higher decomposition rates were noted in the harvested areas as compared to the control. This was mainly attributed to higher soil temperatures, which accelerated microbial activity. Increased decomposition rates may have been responsible for elevated levels of ammonium and organic carbon observed in ground water samples. A total of 29 species of herpetofauna (10 amphibians and 19 reptiles) were observed during the study. Salamanders were found more often in the undisturbed control. Reptiles were observed more frequently in the harvested area. Although herpetofaunal species composition was different between harvest and control, indices of diversity were similar.

Keywords: Blackwater, bottomland hardwoods, herpetofauna, function, harvest, biomass, biogeochemistry.

Reid, L.M. 1993. Research and cumulative watershed effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-141. Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 118 p.

ABSTRACT: The mandate for land managers to address cumulative watershed effects (CWES) requires that planners evaluate the potential impacts of their activities on multiple beneficial uses within the context of other coexisting activities in a watershed. Types of CWES vary with the types of land-use activities and their modes of interaction, but published studies illustrate both descriptive and predictive evaluations of many of these types. Successful evaluations have generally used geomorphological and ecological approaches based on the understanding of the processes involved. In contrast, most generalized "cookbook" analysis procedures are shown to be unable to assess accumulations of impacts through time, usually cannot evaluate the range of activities and uses that are necessary, and are rarely validated. A general approach to evaluation is proposed, and the types of information available for assessments are reviewed.

Keywords: watershed, cumulative impact, land-use planning, water quality

Stone, M.K. and J.B. Wallace. 1998. Long-term recovery of a mountain stream from clearcut logging: the effects of forest succession on benthic invertebrate community structure. Freshwater Biology. 39(6): 151-169.

ABSTRACT: 1. Changes in benthic invertebrate community structure following 16 years of forest succession after logging were examined by estimating benthic invertebrate abundance, biomass and secondary production in streams draining a forested reference and are covering clear-cut catchment. Benthic invertebrate abundance was three times higher, and invertebrate biomass and production were two times higher in the disturbed stream.
2. Comparison of invertebrate community abundance 1, 5 and 16 years after clear-cutting indicated that the proportion of scrapers had decreased, whereas shredders had increased. Functional group percentage similarity indicated that the invertebrate community in the disturbed stream 16 years after clear-cutting was more similar to the reference than to that found earlier in the disturbed stream.
3. The five indices calculated from data collected over the past 16 years, as well as the abundance, biomass and production data collected during this study, proved to be of differing value in assessing recovery of the disturbed stream from logging. Percent dominant taxon and EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera) taxon richness failed to show any initial differences between reference and disturbed streams, indicating that these indices may not be useful for measuring recovery from logging. The percentage Baetis and shredder--scraper indices showed significant differences only during the 1977 study and suggest recovery (no difference between reference and disturbed) by 1982. The North Carolina Biotic Index showed continued differences during 1982 in the riffle and depositional habitats and recovery by 1993. Total macro invertebrate abundance, biomass and production, as well as EPT abundance, indicated continued differences between the reference and disturbed streams in the 1993 study.

Keywords: forest succession, invertebrate, logging, biomass, stream, clearcut.
Webster, J.R., A.P. Covich, J.L. Tank, and T.V. Crockett. 1994. Retention of coarse organic particles in streams in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Journal of the North American Benthological Society. 13(2): 140-150.

ABSTRACT: Retention of coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) is essential to the efficient use of organic matter in streams supported by allochthonous inputs. To measure retention and to study factors affecting retention, we conducted both long-term and short-term experiments using small dowels as indices of stick retention and pieces of paper as indices of leaf retention. These experiments were done in streams at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. In general, we found that both types of CPOM were efficiently retained in all streams. Factors that affected CPOM transport and retention were storms, stream size, stream depth, and the abundance of retention structures in the streams. After initial transport, woody CPOM was transported only during storms. Retention was greater in smaller streams and in shallower stream sites. Rocks, boulders, and woody debris were the most important retention structures. In the stream draining a logged catchment, lower CPOM retention was associated with lower abundance of woody debris dams.

Keywords: stream, large particulate organic matter, wood, retention, debris dams.

Yoshimoto, A. and J.D. Brodie. 1994. Short- and long-term impacts of spatial restrictions on harvest scheduling with reference to riparian zone planning. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24(8): 1617-1628.

ABSTRACT: Owing to the significance of shade, wildlife habitat, soil stabilization, and water-filtering effects of stream side vegetation on the riparian zone, spatial restrictions are imposed on both public and private harvesting areas along the stream by state and federal agencies. Analysis of both short- and long-term impacts of the riparian zone spatial restrictions as well as spatial restrictions on harvest units is presented. The heuristic model called SSMART, for spatially constrained harvest scheduling problems, is used to solve the proposed problems. The Green River sub-basin on the Alsea Ranger District, Siuslaw National Forest, Oregon, is used for the analysis. Our computational experiments show that the marginal reduction of the total present net worth in dollars is about 6.2% per 100-foot (1 foot =0.305 m) width of the riparian management area, and about 6.7% for the average annual harvest flow. It is also shown that increasing the exclusion period to two or three periods could cause major reduction (25-40%) in both the total present net worth and the average annual harvest flow. The linear programming relaxation is revealed to provide a good approximation for impacts of the size of riparian management areas, while it cannot be used for examining impacts of the exclusion period.

Keywords: riparian zone, harvest, modeling.

WILDLIFE HABITAT

Cox, E.S., and J. Sullivan. 1995. Harvest scheduling with spatial wildlife constraints: An empirical examination of tradeoffs. Journal of Environmental. Management. 43(4): 333-348.

ABSTRACT: The impact of imposing spatial wildlife constraints on long-range timber management schedules is examined for a public forest in northern Virginia under varying levels of a wildlife habitat constraint. Linear programming-based timber management scheduling models are solved using (1) standard linear programming, (2) mixed-integer programming with computer-determined stand allocations, and (3) mixed-integer programming with predetermined stand allocations in order to determine the extent to which the failure to consider explicitly the spatial aspects of a forest management problem with wildlife concerns may lead to an overestimation of timber production capacity.
Findings indicate that present net value is overestimated by 1-8% to 21-41/o and annual sawtimber harvest volume is overestimated by 2-6% to 13-5% when the standard linear programming approach is used.

Keywords: linear programming, mixed-integer programming, harvest planning, area planning, allowable cut, wildlife constraints, forest fragmentation.

Dickson, J.G., F.R. Thompson III, R.N. Conner, and K.E. Franzreb. 1993. Effects of Silviculture on Nontropical migratory birds in Central and Southeastern Oak Pine Forest. Finch, D. M.; Stangel, P.W., eds. 1993. Status and Management of Nontropical Migratory Birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-229. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p.

ABSTRACT: Avian communities that are associated with forest habitat attributes are affected by silvicultural and other stand influences. Some species have specific habitat requirements, whereas others occupy a broad range of vegetative conditions. In general, bird species richness and density are positively related to stand foliage volume and diversity. Bird density and diversity are usually high in young brushy stands, decrease in dense pole stands as canopies close and shade out understories, and are highest in older stands with diverse foliage strata. Tree harvesting generally favors early successional species such as the Indigo Bunting, Prairie Warbler, and Yellow-breasted Chat, but some late successional forest species, such as the Black-and-white Warbler, persist with partial cutting. A few forest interior species, such as the Ovenbird, are less abundant in landscapes with cutting and forest fragmentation. Some species may have elevated nest parasitism and nest predation along forest edges. Recommendations for NTMB include: Maintain some large, old-growth stands; manage forest habitat for NTMB; employ special measures for endangered or sensitive species; implement long-term monitoring; and develop more complete information through research regarding NTMB, population viability, and their forest habitat.
Central hardwood, loblolly-shortleaf pine, longleaf-slash-pine, and bottomland hardwood forests dominate the central and southeastern United States. These forests are managed by both even-aged and uneven-aged silvicultural systems. We review the impacts of silvicultural practices on nontropical migratory birds (NTMB), in forests of this region. We approach this topic by (1) identifying general relationships between birds and forest habitats and landscapes in the region, (2) assessing effects of forest management on the NTMB in each ecosystem, and (3) conclude with some management strategies that extend across forest types.

Keywords: Central hardwood, even-aged, uneven-aged silviculture, nontropical migratory birds, NTMB, Avian, bird density.

Demaynadier, P.G. and M.L. Hunter, JR. 1998. Effects of Silvicultural edges on the distribution and abundance of amphibians in Maine. Conservation Biology. 12(2): 340-352.

ABSTRACT: Amphibian share several biological characteristics that may cause them to be sensitive to abrupt transitions in microhabitat and microclimate that occur across forest edges. To better understand the importance of edge effects on amphibians in a forested landscape, we sampled the distribution of populations along drift fences placed perpendicular to silvicultural edges of varying contrast in central Maine. Within the community of amphibians sampled (14 species), salamanders generally were more sensitive to even-aged harvesting and associated edge effects than were anurans, but forest habitat generalists and specialists were identified within both groups. We conservatively estimated the depth of edge effects at 25-35 m for a subset of management-sensitive species (Plethodon cinereus, Ambystoma maculatum, A laterale, and Rana sylvatica). An index of edge contrast, calculated using ambient light penetration levels, was valuable in predicting the magnitude of edge effects among sites that included silvicultural edges of different age and origin (old field plantations versus recent clearcuts). Some structural microhabitat variables relevant to forest management were identified as potentially limiting to amphibians near forest edges, including canopy cover, litter cover, and a measure of stump, snags, and their root channels. Our observations were consistent with the results of other work on biotic edge effects in the eastern United States and suggest that impacts from intense forest management practices extend beyond the boundaries of harvested stands.

Keywords: clearcut, amphibians, forest edges, forest management, silviculture, Maine.
Healy, W.M. 1991. Trends in management of oak forests for wild turkey. S.B. Laursen and J.F. DeBoe eds. Proceedings: The Oak Resource in the Upper Midwest Conference. Winona, MN. June 3-6. 45-55 pp.

ABSTRACT: Oaks play a "keystone" role in eastern wildlife communities. Many species of wildlife depend on acorns for food, and a few species are responsible for the long-distance dispersal of acorns. There is strong evidence that eastern oak forests are about to undergo a dramatic change. Oaks seem unable to replace themselves on average and good growing sites. The ultimate cause for the decline of oak appears to be a change in fire frequency. In the future, resource managers will have to pay more attention to the species composition of regenerating stands. More intensive silviculture, and perhaps some new techniques, will be needed to maintain oak ecosystems. The biggest impediments to managing oak ecosystems will involve forming a public consensus on the desired landscape condition, and selling public and professionals on new management activities.

Keywords: Oak, acorns, fire, reproduction, regeneration, wildlife, landscape, turkey.

Hughes, J.W. and T.J. Fahey. 1991. Availability, quality, and selection of browse by White-Tailed Deer after clearcutting. Forest Science. 37(1): 261-270.

ABSTRACT: We evaluated the effect of large-scale forest harvest on the production, nutritive quality, twig size, and use of four preferred species of browse by white-tailed deer in a spruce-fir forest in New Hampshire. Red maple produced the most new twigs (44-fold increase 3 years after harvest), and 99% of these were sprouts from stumps. Mountain maple and mountain ash twig production increased by factors of 3.5 and 1.9, respectively, and most twigs were borne on stems that survived the clearcutting. Most yellow birch (4-fold increase after 3 years) colonized from newly dispersed seed. For all species of browse except yellow birch, clearcutting resulted in (1) significantly larger, heavier twigs, and (2)significantly higher concentrations of protein and soluble carbohydrates. Deer removed a higher proportion of twigs from the clearcut than from the uncut forest. Mountain ash and mountain maple were the preferred species on both sites. Management implications are discussed.

Keywords: Clearcutting, Nutrition, Odocoileus virginianus, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, white-tailed deer, browse.

Kirkland, G. L. Jr. 1990. Patterns of initial small mammal community change after clearcutting of temperate North American forests. Oikos 59(3): 313-320.

ABSTRACT: A review of 21 published studies revealed a general pattern of positive initial responses of small mammals to conventional clearcutting of temperate North American forests. Four measures of small mammal abundance and diversity exhibited significant patterns of increase: overall relative abundance of small mammals, and abundances of microtine rodents, Clethrionomys gapperi. and Peromyscus spp. in coniferous forests. There were non-significant patterns of increase in seven other measures: species richness, diversity (Shannon index), population density, and abundances of soricids, sciurids, zapodids. and Peromyscus. Community evenness, and abundances of Tamias (Eutamias) and Peromyscus in deciduous forests decreased in a majority of studies. In general, responses of small mammals to clear-cutting were similar in deciduous and coniferous forests. The principal exception involved the abundance of Peromyscus, which evinced a significant pattern of increase in coniferous forests but tended to decline in abundance following clearcutting of deciduous forests. The potential influences of forest type, population of small mammals, single-sample surveys, and site characteristics to variation in patterns of community response are examined, along with the potential impact of whole-tree harvesting on the responses of small mammals to clearcutting.

Keywords: small mammals, clearcutting, whole-tree harvest, conifer, hardwood.
Petit, D.R., L.J. Petit, T.E. Martin, R.E. Thill, and J.F. Taulman. 1993. Breeding birds of late-rotation pine-hardwood stands: Community characteristics and similarity to other regional pine forest. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 103-116.

ABSTRACT: The relative abundances of bird species and the ecological characteristics of the overall avian community were quantified within 20 late-rotation pine-hardwood sites in the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas and Oklahoma during 1992 and 1993. In addition, similarities in species composition and guild representation were compared with those of forest types in other areas of the Southeastern United States to assess the possible extent of generalizations to be made from this Ecosystem Management research. A total of 55 bird species was recorded within survey plots during 1992 and 1993, but only 10 species accounted for more than 80 percent of all individuals detected. Pine warblers comprised approximately 40 percent of all individuals. Rank abundances of the 55 species were relatively consistent between years, especially for the most common species. Numbers of species and individuals detected during point count surveys were different between 1992 and 1993, although some of that discrepancy may be due to interobserver variation. No significant differences were detected in bird species richness, abundance, or diversity among the four geographic zones or among future harvesting treatments. Bird communities were dominated by species that nest and forage in the canopy. Similarity was relatively low between bird assemblages characterized on the Ouachita Mountain sites and assemblages in other studies. Representation of nesting and foraging guilds, however, was more closely aligned with guild structure found in other forests. In general, results from Ecosystem Management Research should be most applicable to loblolly-shortleaf pine and oak-hickory forest types in the Southeast.

Keywords: Ozark National Forest, ecosystem, bird, avian, harvest, shortleaf pine, oak-hickory.

Petit, L.J., D.R. Petit, T.E. Martin, R.E. Thill, and J.F. Taulman.1993. Predicting the effects of ecosystem management harvesting treatments on breeding birds in pine-hardwood forests. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 117-125.

ABSTRACT: Habitat relationships of birds are well known compared to those of other taxa. However, a major obstacle to developing rigorous management plans for birds is the collation and transfer of information from widely scattered technical and academic publications to a form that can be applied directly to the management of species. Recognizing this dilemma, Hamel (1992) produced a comprehensive summary of bird-habitat relationships for 23 forest types in the Southeastern United States. The explicit purpose of Hamel's summary was to aid land managers in projecting the impacts of silvicultural practices and management activities on bird populations. Ecosystem Management Research offered a unique opportunity to develop and test predictions derived from Hamel's bird-habitat matrices. Given its probable widespread use by wildlife biologists and land managers, Hamel's compilation needs its strengths and weaknesses identified for the future development of accurate predictive models of wildlife habitat in the Southeastern United States. Predictions of immediate changes in abundances of species and guilds occupying late-rotation pine-hardwood stands were developed in this paper for four harvesting treatments. Clearcutting and shelterwood harvesting were predicted to be more detrimental to the overall breeding bird community in late-rotation stands than were group or single-tree selection, although at least several species were predicted to increase in each silvicultural treatment. Bark, aerial, and canopy insectivores were predicted to exhibit more
substantial declines in populations than carnivores, shrub insectivores, and ground

foragers. In addition, species that place their nests in shrubs were predicted to undergo fewer declines than species that place nests in the canopy, tree cavities, and on the ground.

Keywords: birds, group, single-tree selection, clearcutting, shelterwood, rotation, wildlife.

Petranka, J.W., M.P. Brannon, M.E. Hopey, C.K. Smith. 1994. Effects of timber harvesting on low elevation populations of southern Appalachian salamanders. Forest Ecology and Management 67: 135-147.

ABSTRACT: We examined the effects of timber harvesting on southern Appalachian salamander communities in a managed watershed in Pisgah National Forest, western North Carolina, USA. Salamander abundance and species richness were lowest in very young stands and highest in stands more than 120 years old. Comparisons of recent clearcuts less than 5 years old with mature stands more than 80 years old suggest that terrestrial salamanders are completely eliminated or reduced to very low numbers when mature forests are clear cut. Comparisons of stand age categories further suggest that salamander abundance in local communities slowly increases for a century or more after stands are intensively harvested. We roughly estimate that logging during the last century by both the private and public sector has resulted in a 70% decline in salamander numbers within the study area as a whole. Implementation of an ecosystem- management strategy which reverses the current trend of having landscapes dominated by early and mid-successional forests would help restore depleted populations to levels where salamanders better fulfill their ecological roles as forest-floor insectivores. Other management techniques that would benefit salamanders include leaving buffers along headwater streams, and using harvesting techniques which assure that the basic structure and function of forests remain intact following timbering operations.

Keywords: Biodiversity, clearcutting, landscape management, Plethodontidae.

Pfannmuller, L.A. 1991. Significance of Oaks and oak forest communities for nongame wildlife. S.B. Laursen and J.F. DeBoe, eds. Proceedings: Oak Resource in the Upper Midwest, Implications for Management. Winona, Minnesota. June 3-6. 56-64 pp.

ABSTRACT: The important value of oaks as a source of food and cover for nongame wildlife is reviewed. The equally important benefit that nongame species provide to oaks is also discussed. Vertebrate inventories of oak forest communities in the Upper Midwest, however, are limited. Data from a few sources are used to identify some common species.
Keywords: oak, nongame, wildlife, Midwest.

Robinson, S.K., F.R. Thompson III, T.M. Donovan, D.R. Whitehead, and J.Faaborg. 1995. Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science. 267: 1987-1990.

ABSTRACT: Forest fragmentation, the disruption in the continuity of forest habitat, is hypothesized to be a major cause of population decline for some species of forest birds because fragmentation reduces nesting (reproductive) success. Nest predation and parasitism by cowbirds increased with forest fragmentation in nine Midwestern (United States) landscapes that varied from 6 to 95 percent forest cover within a 1 0-kilometer radius of the study areas. Observed reproductive rates were low enough for some species in the most fragmented landscapes to suggest that their populations are sinks that depend for perpetuation on immigration from reproductive source populations in landscapes with more extensive forest cover. Conservation strategies should consider preservation and restoration of large, unfragmented "core" areas in each region.

Keywords: Midwestern region, forest fragmentation, birds, nesting, cowbirds.

Root, B.G., F.R. Thompson III, D.E. Figert, and E.K. Fritzell. 1990. Peromyscus leucopus response to clearcutting in a Missouri oak-hickory forest. Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science 24: 43-48.

ABSTRACT: We studied the response of a Peromyscus leucopus population to clearcutting in an oak-hickory forest in central Missouri from 1982-88. We captured and released 291 P. leucopus at two study sites - 79 before clearcutting began, 143 up to six years following clearcutting, and 69 in uncut control areas. Population trends were similar between clearcut and control areas, but clearcuts generally had greater numbers of P. leucopus. Clearcutting appeared to have little effect on overall population fluctuations.

Keywords: Clearcutting, minimum number alive, Missouri, oak-hickory, Peromyscus leucopus.

Suarez, A.V., K.S. Pfennig, and S.K. Robinson. 1997. Nesting success of a disturbance-dependent songbird on different kinds of edges. Conservation Biology.
11(4): 928-935.

ABSTRACT: We compared the nesting success of a disturbance-dependent species, the Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea), on different kinds of habitat edges in five sites (225 total nests) in southern Illinois from 1989 to1993. Nest predation rates along agricultural and abrupt, permanent edges (eg., wildlife openings, camp-grounds) were nearly twice as high as rates along more gradual edges where plant succession was allowed to occur (eg, treefalls, streamsides, gaps created by selective logging). Levels of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothms ater) varied significantly among sites and years, but not among edge types. Clutch sizes, however, were significantly smaller at agricultural edges where nest predation rates were also higher, which suggests either decreased food availability or a population dominated by younger and/or lower-quality (poor condition) birds. The results of this study illustrate the need to reevaluate management practices (eg., wildlife openings) that are designed to promote populations of disturbance-dependent wildlife.

Keywords: nesting, disturbance, Indigo Bunting, edge, habitat, predation, cowbird.

Tappe, P.A., R.E Thill, J.J. Krystofik, and G.A. Heidt. 1993. Small mammal communities of mature pine-hardwood stands in the Ouachita Mountains. In: Baker, James B., ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment and Preliminary Findings, Hot Springs, AR, October 26-27, 1993. 74-81.

ABSTRACT: A study was conducted on the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in Arkansas to evaluate the effects of alternative pine-hardwood reproduction cutting methods on small mammal abundance and diversity. Pretreatment characteristics of small mammal communities on 20 late-rotation mixed pine-hardwood stands in four physiographic zones of the Ouachita Mountain region of Arkansas are presented. Each physiographic zone (block) contained one replication of five treatments (four future treatments and an untreated control). The most commonly captured small mammal species were Peromyscus spp., Blarina carolinensis, and Ochrotomys nuttalli. Capture success varied between years but most likely reflected changes in probabilities of capture of individual animals and not fluctuations in community composition. Small mammal species richness, diversity, evenness, and relative abundance did not differ between physiographic zones or future treatments.

Keywords: Ouachita, Ozark National Forest, Arkansas, small mammal, pine-hardwood.

Thompson, F.R, III, Fritzell, E.K. 1990. Bird densities and diversity in clearcut and mature oak-hickory forest. Res. Pap. NC-293. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes nongame bird densities and diversity in a central Missouri oak-hickory forest 1 year before and 3 years after portions were clearcut. Discusses changes in species density and diversity and their management implications.

KEYWORDS: Breeding birds, clearcutting, diversity, Missouri, oak-hickory forest, population densities.

Thompson, F.R., III, W.D. Dijak, T.G. Kulowiec, and D.A. Hamilton. Breeding bird populations in Missouri Ozark Forests with and without clearcutting. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 56(1): 23-30.

ABSTRACT: Concern has arisen that forest management practices that create edge (such as clearcutting) are contributing to regional declines in neotropical migrant birds that inhabit forest interiors. Consequently, we studied breeding bird populations in an extensively forested region of southern Missouri to determine if the numbers of breeding birds differed between areas (n = 9) managed by the clearcutting method (CCM), and areas (n = 9) of mature forest with no recent timber harvest or other disturbances (NOHVST). Three forest interior migrants had lower (P < 0.06) mean densities on CCM sites than NOHVST sites; 3 had greater (F< 0.03) densities on CCM sites; and densities of 3 others did not differ (P > 0.40) between treatments. All early successional migrants had greater (P < 0.01) densities on CCM sites. Numbers of 2 avian nest predator and a brood parasite did not differ (P > 0.20) on CCM and NOHVST sites. Densities of 9 species differed (P < 0.10) among regeneration, sapling, and pole-sawtimber habitats on CCM sites. While clearcutting reduced numbers of forest interior birds that were dependent on mature forest habitats, other forest interior species made extensive use of early and mid-successional even-aged stands and occurred in greater numbers on CCM sites.

Keywords: neotropical birds, brood parasite, clearcutting, forest interior birds, density, Missouri.

Thompson, F.R., III, J.R. Probst, and M.G. Raphael. 1995. Impacts of Silviculture: Overview and management recommendations. Ecology and Management of Neotropical Migratory Birds. Eds. T.E. Martin and D.M. Finch. Oxford Press. 201-219.

ABSTRACT: Recent declines in population sizes of Neotropical migratory birds (NTMBS) have been attributed to problems on the breeding grounds as well as nonbreeding areas (Hutto1988, Robbins et al. 1989a, Askins et al. 1990,Wilcove and Robinson 1990). Habitat loss and fragmentation, and the resultant area and edge-related decreases in reproductive success, are at least partially responsible for local declines or extirpations (see Faaborg et al., Chapter 13, this volume, Freemark et al., Chapter 14, this volume, for reviews). Silvicultural practices alter landscape structure, forest age and structure, and create edges, causing concern for the impacts of these practices on NTMBs. This concern is often greater when timber is harvested on public forest lands because they are some of the least fragmented forests remaining in parts of North America (Wilcove 1988). Much research and management effort have been directed at the impacts of silviculture practices on forest songbirds, partly evident by a series of regional workshops on management of forest birds from 1975 to1980 (Smith 1975, DeGraaf 1978, 1979, 1980). However, most research on silviculture and its impact on birds has occurred at the stand or habitat level, and only occasionally are large-scale inferences made. Researchers and managers now are realizing they not only must be concerned with the impacts of silvicultural practices at the forest-stand level but also with the regional and landscape context of a stand, the cumulative and landscape level effects of management practices, and species interactions such as brood parasitism and predation.
We review common silvicultural systems used in North America and their impacts on forest-dwelling NTMBS. We begin with a brief review of landscape and habitat factors that affect breeding forest birds, then review some basic concepts of silviculture and the potential impacts -of these systems with emphasis on harvest and regeneration methods. Other forest practices and regional practices arc addressed in this volume by Rotenberry et al. (Chapter 3), Dickson et al.(Chapter 9), Freemark et al. (Chapter 14), and Hcjl et al. (Chapter 8). We approach this topic from a regional-landscape scale to a stand-habitat scale, rather than the traditional stand-level approach.

Keywords: silviculture, neotropical migratory birds ( NTMB ), stand, forest.

Thompson, Frank R., III; Dessecker, Daniel R. 1997. Management of early-successional communities in central hardwood forests: with special emphasis on the ecology and management of oaks, ruffed grouse, and forest songbirds. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC- 195. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 33 p.

ABSTRACT: Describes the history, ecology, and silviculture of central hardwood forests and the status and ecology of early-successional forest song-birds and ruffed grouse. Concludes with management guidelines for early-successional communities in central hardwood forests.

Keywords: Early-successional forest, ruffed grouse, songbirds, wildlife habitat, central hardwoods, silviculture, oaks.

Titus, R. 1983. Management of snags and den trees in Missouri-a process. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report. RM-99. Proceedings: Snag Habitat Management. 51-59.

ABSTRACT: The Missouri Department of Conservation and Mark Twain National Forest have been reviewing and refining standards and guides for managing wildlife habitat. An important part of this effort has been to more clearly define the biological basis for dens and snags and to develop management guidelines. A committee was assigned to review available literature on 89 species of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles known to require snags and/or den trees to meet their life history requisites in Missouri. Data on these species such as territory size, maximum populations/100acres, and den tree characteristics such as diameter at breast height, cavity height, and number of dens per acre required for maximum populations were compiled. The species were then segregated by their use of broad habitat types which were identified as Forest Interior, Semi-open/Open Land, and Wooded Watercourses, referred to as Land Use Patterns (LUPS). Biological requirements were established for each major land use pattern and management techniques recommended for even-age and uneven-age silvicultural systems.

Keywords: snag, den, habitat type, bird, mammal, amphibian, reptile, wildlife, Missouri.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI THESES
Forestry Department Theses

Note: These theses are on file in the office of the Forestry Department, Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Room 203, Columbia, MO 65211.

Briggs, J.I. 1980. Effects of timber type conversion upon song bird populations in the southeast Missouri Ozarks. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 87p.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the impacts of timber type conversion (conversion due to the removal of hardwood species for more favorable pine production) on bird density and composition. The objectives were to compare seasonal densities, composition, and fluctuations of bird populations within three forest types (pine, oak, and pine-oak) and determine the relationships of seasonal bird population characteristics to each forest type studies. The pine, pine-oak, and oak forest types have different bird community compositions. A "trade-off" is the result of conversion practices because each forest type supports and provides habitat for some bird species that are not present in the other forest types. The bird population is not "devastated" during conversion of hardwood stands to pine stands but it changes in composition to that more typical of an earlier successional stage. If bird species found only in the oak stands are to be retained in the local bird community, portions of the oak forest type must be maintained.

Keywords: bird populations, forest type, forest conversion, silvicultural impacts, timber type conversion, bird species richness, guild densities, hole nesters, neo-tropical migrants.

Dubois, M.R. 1984. The silvicultural and economic feasibility of thinning 20- and 40-year-old black oak stands in the Missouri Ozarks. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 173p.

ABSTRACT: Silvicultural and economic analyses of thinning black oak stands were conducted on the Sinkin Experimental Forest and other areas in southeastern Missouri. Data from 72, one-half acre experimental plots that were established in 1961 and 1962 in 20- and 40-year old black oak stands were used in the analysis. Thinning reduced stand density on these plots to various specified levels at the beginning of the study and irregular time intervals thereafter. Sample measurements monitoring growth of individual trees were conducted initially and as many as seven times over a 20-year period. Results of multiple linear regression analysis indicate that larger diameter trees in black oak stands have greater periodic annual increment (PAI) following thinning, regardless of stand age, stand density or site quality. These larger trees were able to sustain higher rates of PAI diameter growth following for longer periods as compared to smaller trees. The greatest PAI's occurred at low-levels of stocking for all thinning regimes examined. Minimum differentials in PAI's attributable to stand density occurred between stockings of 50 and 80 percent for thinned 22-year old stand between 70 and 90 percent for thinned 40-year old stands. Periodic annual increments were maintained at a higher level for longer periods following thinning in 40-year old stands on a site index 70 as compared to a site index 60. Results from the economic analysis indicate no-thinning management alternatives with 60-year rotations produced the largest present net worth (PNW's) at 7.125 percent real discount rate for 20- and 40-year old stands on site indexes 60 and 70 if there are no markets for cordwood from thinnings. Where there are markets for cordwood for thinnings, the largest PNW's for 20- and 40-year old stands on sites 60 and 70 were attained with management alternatives in which thinning is not initiated until age 40. Thinning to residual stand densities of 70 and 80 percent stocking on 10-year intervals to a rotation age 60 years produced the largest PNW's.

Keywords: thinning, forest economics, forestry finance, present net worth, growth rate, sensitivity analyses.

Dwyer, J.P. 1988. Evaluation of the long-term silvicultural and economic effects of thinning and pruning treatments on a scarlet and black oak timber stand in southeastern Missouri. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Missouri-Columbia. 255p.

ABSTRACT: This study reports on the long-term silvicultural and economic effects of thinning and pruning on scarlet and black oak crop trees that had been initially thinned in 1953 on the University State Forest, near Lake Wappapello, MO. A random sample of crop trees were harvested, scaled, and sawn into lumber products. The results of these physical production outputs were combined with the economic inputs to determine optimal management regimes for the sustained production of scarlet and black oak timber stands in the Missouri Ozarks. Statistical analyses indicated no significant differences in grade or value of lumber produced from trees due to pruning, or to the thinning-pruning interaction. However, thinning was found to have a significant effect on the quantity, grade, and value of lumber produced at the individual tree and stand level. The value of lumber produced from scarlet oak crop trees significantly increased as thinning level intensified. At more intense thinning levels, the average lumber value from scarlet oak crop trees was more than twice the value of untreated trees. The economic analysis which was applied to the five thinning alternatives showed that the moderate thinning treatment had the highest net present worth ($506.74 per acre). Linear programming was used to explore the interactive effects of timing, frequency, and intensity of thinning upon the development of four forest stands over time. From this evaluation an optimum management regime for scarlet and black oak crop trees was developed.

Keywords, management regimes, linear programming, thinning, pruning, financial analysis, tree quality, log quality, lumber quality, economic analysis.

Fairweather, J.R. 1979. Types of forest landowners in the Missouri eastern Ozarks.
Unpublished MA thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 114p.

ABSTRACT: The research reported in this thesis looks at the different attitudes held by landowners in the Eastern Ozarks area, in particular the purpose is to describe the precise nature of these different attitudes by describing different landowner types and how their attitudes relate to management practice. The Q-method was used to randomly sample 66 subjects in a 14-county area of the Eastern Ozarks. Three landowner types were identified, The Concerned Ecologist, The Dedicated Farmer, and The Practical Forester. The Concerned Ecologist is concerned about the preservation and conservation of forest land and has a long time perspective regarding its future. The Dedicated Farmer is characterized by an ever-present business attitude combined with a powerful interest in cattle-farming. The Practical Forester is essentially a forester with a primary goal of continued production and harvesting of timber. To encourage the Concerned Ecologist to harvest timber and manage for this goal, requires the valid information on the effect of these operations on wildlife and amenity values, be made available. The Dedicated Farmer responds well to the economic aspect of forestry management so information on its profitability will be of interest to him/her. The Practical Forester needs encouragement to implement the correct management practices and keep up-to-date.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy.

Ficklin, R.L. 1997. Reduction of timber production externalities by using an alternative harvesting technique to minimize soil and stand damage. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 145p.

ABSTRACT: In this project the use of an alternative skidding system in the Missouri Ozarks was examined to test the hypothesis that both tree damage and soil disturbance can by reduced by implementing alternative harvesting systems. If alternative harvesting practices are shown to reduce the negative externalities associated with residual tree damage and soil disturbance from timber production, then it should be possible to increase the overall level of timber production that maximizes net social benefit in a multiple-use forest management system. Moreover, in this project changes in the concentration and quantity of soil organic carbon following perturbation by timber harvesting were examined. The results of this investigation support the use of both uneven-aged regeneration systems and alternative harvesting techniques for reducing timber production externalities. The alternative harvesting technique (mule) reduced the extent and severity of residual tree damage (8.0% of trees damaged using mules compared to 23.5% for the rubber-tired skidders). Furthermore, the extent of soil disturbance was also reduced by two-thirds with the alternative harvesting technique, so compaction from skidding was limited to only three percent of the total land area. In contrast to previous investigations of soil carbon following clearcuts, no decrease in soil organic carbon was observed following selection cutting.

Keywords: skidding impacts, soil organic carbon, soil disturbance, residual stand damage, timber production externalities, forest disturbance.

Hansen, W.F. 1975. Water quantity and quality relationships on four experimental watersheds in southeast Missouri. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 128p.

ABSTRACT: This study includes research during part of the pretreatment or calibration period of four gaged, headwater catchments in the Missouri Ozarks. The study objectives are to compare water yield and quality on the research watersheds at the University Forest, to discuss some of the factors which appear to influence stream discharge and nutrient concentrations, and to provide benchmark information on stream water quality from headwater watersheds in the Ozarks. On the University Forest watersheds, stream water quality and water yield are highly correlated on watersheds 1, 2, and 3. Because future treatment may increase base flows and alter water quality from these additions, extreme care will have to be taken in the use of these watersheds in a paired watershed study. It may be difficult to tell which additions are the result of the watershed treatment. It is fortunate that some of the major nutrients that concern watershed managers are not radically influences by subsurface flows. Future studies should focus on throughfall, litter, leachate and groundwater inputs as possibly the major factors in the observed variability in stream water quality from undisturbed forested areas.

Keywords: nutrient flux, stream flow runoff, water quality, paired watersheds, precipitation.

Herbeck, L.A. 1998. Ecological interactions of plethodontid salamanders and vegetation in Missouri Ozark Forests. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 78p.

ABSTRACT: An examination of the management impacts on plethodontid salamander abundance in oak-pine and oak-hickory forest ecosystems in the southeastern Ozarks of Missouri. Salamander abundance was measured in regenerating forests less than five years old, second growth forests 70-80 years old, and old-growth forests greater than 120 years old. Salamander density was lowest in newly regenerated stands and highest in stands more than 120 years old. Comparisons of regenerating forests less than five years old with mature stands more than 70 years old suggest that terrestrial salamanders are reduced to very low numbers when mature forests are intensively harvested. Stand age comparisons further suggest that salamander abundance slowly increases over time after stands are regenerated. Using Poisson regression, models were constructed based on data collected to describe the relationship between plethodontid salamanders and vegetation structure within each forest structural age. Several habitat variables were significantly correlated (Pearson's R absolute value > 0.50) but no habitat variables were highly correlated with Salamander density.

Keywords: salamanders forest structure, habitat loss, forest disturbance.

Kim, B.K. 1973. Constraints on timber production to accommodate wildlife habitat. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Missouri-Columbia. 117p.

ABSTRACT: A shortage of timber supply is anticipated. Increasing demand for both hunting and non-consumptive enjoyment of wildlife also is evident. To increase overall efficiency in forest production, land managers must coordinate timber production and wildlife habitat improvement. This study estimates the sacrifice necessitated in timber production to accommodate wildlife habitat improvement and evaluates silvicultural treatments on the Carman Springs Wildlife Refuge Management Area in Missouri. By modifying treatments of timber stands and their timing, the distribution of timber stand size classes by area was significantly improved so that the diversity of habitat essential to wildlife is enhanced. No substantial losses were experienced in the total volume of timber cut in order to improve wildlife habitat, but some timber cutting was delayed two to three decades. Production of forage was increased, but mast production decreased. Coordination of wildlife habitat improvement with timber management appears more favorable than a dominant land use for timber production.

Keywords: integration of timber production with wildlife habitat, rate of return, long-term management strategies, economic impact of wildlife habitat improvement.

Lewis, B.J. 1979. Private non-industrial forest landowners in the Missouri Ozarks: A Q-methodological establishment of types. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 251p.

ABSTRACT: Private non-industrial forest landowners of diverse backgrounds and interests performed a Q-sort in which they expressed attitudes concerning a variety of forest management objectives. A Q-factor analysis identified four attitudinal types of private forest landowners. Two of the four types were distinctly oriented towards long-term timber management, while another type placed strong emphasis on the preservation of the forest environment. A fourth landowner type was primarily concerned with cattle operations, with forest land being of secondary importance to this individual. For the Timber Conservationist, any program of public forestry assistance must emphasize the overall improvement in the quality of the forest land which can result form the sustained harvesting of timber crops. For the Range Pragmatist, the initial function of an assistance program should be informative in nature. Incentives should appeal to the practical nature of harvesting as a business venture- there is money in trees and as long as such a potential exits, it would be worthwhile for the landowner to take advantage of the supplementary source of income. The Timber Agriculturalist forest landowner would be the most receptive among all types to the traditional production-oriented approach of public forestry assistance programs.
For the Forest Environmentalist the primary emphasis of an assistance program must involve an effective demonstration that timber harvesting is compatible with a healthy and aesthetically pleasing forest environment.

Keywords: non-industrial private forest landowner, Q-methodology, government assistance programs, landowner survey, forest management objectives

Loveless, J.P. 1975. Breeding bird populations of forest edges in Central Missouri. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 56p.

ABSTRACT: This study was designed to census the breeding birds of forest edges in Central Missouri, to examine the characteristics of these edge habitats, and discuss the effects of these characteristics on breeding bird diversity. Three forest opening study areas, a grazed pasture and two old fields, were located on the Cedar Creek Purchase Unit of the National Forests in Missouri. Bird species diversity increases as vegetation structural diversity increases. To promote maximum bird species diversity maintain early and middle seral stages, as well as leave 20-30% old growth trees along the edges. In this study intensive grazing of cool season grasses during the warmest months of the year have contributed to severe pasture degradation. To remedy this, change the grazing scheme, and establish, maintain, and graze native prairie grasses.

Keywords: bird populations, forest edges, bird species diversity, cluster analysis, avifauna, bird species frequency.

Marty, T.D. 1983. An extension of nonindustrial private forest landowner topologies: A Wisconsin study. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 230p.

ABSTRACT: This study was conducted in north central Wisconsin to determine various characteristics of nonindustrial private forest owner types relevant for public-assistance policy development. Three distinct owner types using Q-methodology. A previously developed landowner decision-making model was expanded and refined to more fully explain the process of management practice adoption. The model illustrates the decision steps leading to selection of a management scheme and the influence of internal and external forces in that decision. Relevant public policy implications of study findings were examined. The Resource Conservationist type owners control about one-third of the forest land and are the most timber production oriented. Forest Recreationist owners control about 40 percent of the forest land and own the land primarily for recreational purposes. Forest Utilitarian owners are interested in short-term utilization of the land and control about one-fifth of the forest land. A comparison of characteristics of Wisconsin and Missouri owner types showed little difference between respective types in term of the level of forest management and timber harvesting activity in of differences in forest industry. Based upon this information relevant public policy implications were examined. It was recommended that a mix of policies be maintained, including relatively general, broad-based programs such as extension activities, and also more landowner intensive programs such as cost-sharing and Cooperative Forest Management. In Missouri, four landowner types were found: Timber Agriculturalist, Timber Conservationist, Forest Environmentalist and Range Pragmatist. The Timber Agriculturalist identified timber production as the number one objective for land ownership 78% of the time. Whereas, the Range Pragmatist identified timber production only 23% of the time. The average forested tract for the Timber Agriculturalist, Timber Conservationist, Forest Environmentalist and Range Pragmatist is 374, 108, 79 and 93 acres, respectively.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy.

Morris, M.F. 1984. Unit hydrographs and synthetic unit hydrographs for two experimental Ozark watersheds. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 108p.

ABSTRACT: This project adapted unit hydrograph theory to forest hydrology, using an extension of the paired-basin technique. The study examined nine years of rainfall and runoff data from two watersheds at University State Forest in southeast Missouri. The objectives of this study were to; 1) determine the magnitude, rand and variability of major hydrograph parameters; 2) develop representative unit hydrographs for the two watersheds; and 3) quantify certain hydrologic relationships among the unit hydrograph parameters on each watershed and between the two watersheds. Analysis of the major hydrograph parameters revealed the following: 1) The return periods of the storms selected were four years or less; 2) intensities of the storms ranged from .53cm/hr. to 7.21 cm/hr.; 3) of all the parameters analyzed for variability, the base time, Tb, had the smallest coefficient of variation; 4) peak discharge, Qp, had the largest coefficient of variation, as well as the largest standard error of the mean; 5) the duration of effective rainfall, Tr, varied from .0.08 hr. to 2.25 hrs.; 6) the time to peak, Tp, ranged from 0.42 hrs. to 3.0 hrs. on watershed 1 and 0.92 hrs to 4.33 hrs. on watershed 2.; 7) the lag time, Tlag, ranged from 0.29 hr. to 2.17 hrs on watershed 1 and 0.45 hr. to 3.50 hrs on watershed 2; and 8) the stormflow volume, V, ranged 0.10 cm. to 1.12 cm. on watershed 1 and from 0.13 cm. to 1.21 cm. on watershed 2. Both watershed were forested.

Keywords: forest hydrology, runoff, watershed, stormflow.

Othic, S.T. 1981. Conversion of forest land in the Missouri Ozark region. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 90p.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the quality and productivity of forest land converted to other land uses (1.4 million acres between 1959 and 1972), and to estimate the effect of conversion on future timber supplies. Since the southwestern and Eastern Ozark Forest Survey Units are quite important to Missouri's timber industry, a comparative study between the two units was made to more precisely identify those areas where land conversion will have an appreciable influence on timber supplies. In addition, an analysis of the quality of forest land which has been converted to pasture was conducted. The review of pre-conversion inventory data disclosed that, in general, the forest stands in both Survey Units were of marginal commercial value because of poor tree form, low stocking rates and low merchantable volume. The effect on future forest inventories was to decrease future inventory volumes. The exact estimate of increase, had conversion not taken place, can be misleading because of site quality differences between the different tracts. Bulldozing of timber stands was the most widely used conversion method and the only technique resulting in complete elimination of the hardwood overstory. The major reason for land conversion was the establishment of fescue pastures. Proper range management practices were practically non-existent within both survey units in that the utilization of cool and warm season grasses coupled with the needed fencing and rotation systems to less grazing pressures were found in only two instances. The observed result was that of established monocultures (Fescue spp.) and severe overgrazing. Re-investigation of the 30 study plots in 1978 showed that of the 15 tracts classified as wooded pasture in 1972 only 6 (40 percent) remained in the same category in 1978. Clearly a major shift has occurred in management objectives, since rather than being allowed to revert to forest, wooded pastures are being diverted to more intensive grazing uses. Rather than fescue, more consideration should be given to the use native warm season grasses because they require less maintenance, are well suited for rotation systems when combined with cool season grasses, and help to offset wildlife habitat losses.

Keywords: habitat loss, land conversion, commercial forest land.

Palmer, B.D. 1995. A regional forest resource attitude assessment - Urban versus rural Missourians. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 224p.

ABSTRACT: A statewide attitude survey conducted during February and March, 1993, the purpose of which was to determine the values and attitudes of Missouri residents toward forest resources. More specifically, to determine the public values associated with forest resources in Missouri and how best to influence public attitudes as they relate to the Missouri Department of Conservation's Forestry Division mission. Missourians hold diverse opinions and only rarely was there accord among regions of the state. In this survey rural residents were found to be more environmentally concerned and more satisfied by amenities from the forest while urban residents favored more commodity production activities. Virtually all respondents considered themselves as sympathetic to environmental causes. Both urban and rural respondents placed a high value on forest amenities, and both groups believed it is necessary to produce goods from the forest to supply our needs. However, the difference in opinion between rural and urban respondents is statistically significant. Confusion over Forestry Division responsibilities exists for both urban and rural respondents. The most important benefit of forest land in general, as perceived by those surveyed, is oxygen production, followed by wildlife habitat, water quality, scenic beauty, recreation, lumber production and a place to earn a living. The most important benefits from public forest land are clean streams, fish and wildlife habitat, plant and animal diversity, recreation, timber production and easy access to forest land. Although lumber production ranks low, this does not mean forests cannot, or should not, be harvested. Carefully cutting trees may be a way to provide benefits and reach objectives, and timber sale proceeds may help "pay the way".

Keywords: landowner survey, attitude survey, public attitudes.

Trammel, C.E. 1991. Management of the Wurdack Farm timber land. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 161p.

ABSTRACT: The Wurdack Farm is located in the Eastern Ozark Region of Southern Missouri. Being comprised of narrow, stony ridges suitable for growing timber and valleys suitable for forage crops, it is typical of the many of the farms in the region. Timber production from oak-hickory forests can supplement farm income from other sources. This study compared the economic returns of even (clearcutting) versus uneven-aged (single-tree) management. Either management method can yield suitable returns to management. This evaluation found that either even-age management with provisions for natural regeneration or uneven-age management using a 20-year harvest cycle with provisions for natural regeneration will yield the highest returns to management at real discount rates between 2.0 and 7.0 percent and stumpage prices between $80.00 and $100.00 per thousand board feet (mbf).

Keywords: forest economics, forestry finance, clearcutting, single-tree, net present worth, management regimes, economic analysis.

Trokey, C.B. 1981. An analysis of timber management potentials for private nonindustrial forest landowners. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 122p.

ABSTRACT: A random survey of nonindustrial private forest landowners was conducted in the Eastern Ozarks Forest Survey Unit of Missouri to determine the proportions within the population of previously identified landowner types and to describe forest management characteristics. Although the Timber Agriculturalists comprise the smallest number of landowners, they control the largest proportion of commercial forest land, have sold the most timber, and express interest in future timber sales. Timber Conservationists do not own their timberland solely for timber harvest, but would become better timber managers with the proper assistance program approach. Approximately two-thirds of the commercial forest land in the eastern Ozarks is controlled by these two types. The Forest Environmentalists and Range Pragmatists may become timber producers with appropriate type of assistance, although their potential for timber management is less promising than for the other two landowner types. Suggestions for public assistance programs were made based on the individual needs of the landowner types. Timber presently being managed for timber harvests represents 59 percent of the forest land in the study area. With more effective government programs, an additional 21 percent of the forest land and timber volume would be available for future harvest. An optimistic figure for available timber supply is 37,585 acres which is controlled by the four landowner types and which is currently under forest management and available for future harvest.

Keywords: landowner survey, Q-methodology, landowner topologies, public policy, landowner objectives, landowner characteristics.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
Fisheries and Wildlife Department Theses

Note: These theses are on file in the office of the Fisheries and Wildlife Department, Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Room 303, Columbia, MO 65211.

Annand, E.M. 1995. Habitat relationships of migrant songbirds in a managed forest. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 73p.

ABSTRACT: I describe habitat use of several species of migrant forest songbirds that breed in managed oak forest in the Missouri Ozarks. I selected 58 sites on the Doniphan, Poplar Bluff, and Salem Ranger Districts of the Mark Twain National Forest, and on Pioneer Forest, a commercial forest. All sites were contained within a contiguous forest managed primarily for timber production. I investigated bird response to 5 treatments: 12 clearcut method sites, 12 shelterwood method sites, 12 group selection sites 10 single-tree selection method sites and 12 unharvested mature even-aged sites. Many bird species tended to select a particular habitat type. Early-successional forest bird species, such as the blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus) and yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens), were most abundant in the young forest habitats and showed strong associations with open canopy. Late-successional forest bird species, such as the ovenbird and the red-eyed vireo, were most abundant in the mature sites and selection treatments and showed strong relationships to high canopy closure. Hooded warblers had the most limited distributions and were found to be most abundant in the selection treatments. Clearcut and shelterwood treatments had the greatest species richness and total relative bird abundance.

Keywords: migrant songbirds, bird richness, bird abundance, clearcutting, group and single-tree selection, shelterwood.

English, W.R. 1983. Structural and functional response of macro invertebrates in artificial streams to sediment and triphenyl phosphate. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 139p.

ABSTRACT: The response of the aquatic invertebrate community in artificial streams contaminated with sediment and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) was examined. The benthos, drip and foregut analysis indicated that both the addition of sediment and sediment+TPP was detrimental to the stream community structure and function. Gut analysis on Hyalella azteca, Asellus brevicaudus and Stenonema femoratum showed treatment induced changes in food resource utilization.

Keywords: aquatic invertebrate, streams, sediment, structure.

Mitchell, M.R. 1985. Breeding bird occurrence in Mid-Missouri forest fragments. Unpublished MS thesis. University of Missouri-Columbia. 114p.

ABSTRACT: This study was conducted to explore the relationship between forest fragmentation and current avian populations in central Missouri in light of the island biogeographic theory of MacArthur and Wilson (1967). Total numbers of breeding bird species and Neotropical migrant breeding species were strongly correlated with island size. Breeding bird and Neotropical migrant breeding numbers increase as the size of the forest area increases.

Keywords: bird populations, forest fragmentation, neotropical migrants